Brine Contamination Research Articles

Fate of Brine Applied to Unpaved Roads at a Radioactive Waste Subsurface Disposal Area

Between 1984 and 1993, MgCl2 brine was used to suppress dust on unpaved roads at a radioactive waste subsurface disposal area. Because Cl− might enhance corrosion of buried metals in the waste, we investigated the distribution and fate of Cl− in the vadose zone using pore water samples collected from suction lysimeters and soluble salt concentrations extracted from sediment samples. The Cl/Br mass ratio and the total dissolved Cl− concentration of pore water show that brine contamination occurs primarily within 13 m of treated roads, but can extend as much as 30 m laterally in near-surface sedimentary deposits. Within the deep vadose zone, which consists of interlayered basalt lava flows and sedimentary interbeds, brine has moved up to 110 m laterally. This lateral migration suggests formation of perched water and horizontal transport during periods of high recharge. In a few locations, brine migrated to depths of 67 m within 3 to 5 yr. Elevated Cl− concentrations were found to depths of 2 m in roadbed material. In drainage ditches along roads, where runoff accumulates and recharge of surface water is high, Cl− was flushed from the sediments in 3 to 4 yr. In areas of lower recharge, Cl− remained in the sediments after 5 yr. Vertical brine movement is directly related to surface recharge through sediments. The distribution of Cl− in pore water and sediments is consistent with estimates of vadose zone residence times and spatial distribution of surface water recharge from other investigations at the subsurface disposal area.

Fate of Brine Applied to Unpaved Roads at a Radioactive Waste Subsurface Disposal Area

Between 1984 and 1993, MgCl2 brine was used to suppress dust on unpaved roads at a radioactive waste subsurface disposal area. Because Cl− might enhance corrosion of buried metals in the waste, we investigated the distribution and fate of Cl− in the vadose zone using pore water samples collected from suction lysimeters and soluble salt concentrations extracted from sediment samples. The Cl/Br mass ratio and the total dissolved Cl− concentration of pore water show that brine contamination occurs primarily within 13 m of treated roads, but can extend as much as 30 m laterally in near‐surface sedimentary deposits. Within the deep vadose zone, which consists of interlayered basalt lava flows and sedimentary interbeds, brine has moved up to 110 m laterally. This lateral migration suggests formation of perched water and horizontal transport during periods of high recharge. In a few locations, brine migrated to depths of 67 m within 3 to 5 yr. Elevated Cl− concentrations were found to depths of 2 m in roadbed material. In drainage ditches along roads, where runoff accumulates and recharge of surface water is high, Cl− was flushed from the sediments in 3 to 4 yr. In areas of lower recharge, Cl− remained in the sediments after 5 yr. Vertical brine movement is directly related to surface recharge through sediments. The distribution of Cl− in pore water and sediments is consistent with estimates of vadose zone residence times and spatial distribution of surface water recharge from other investigations at the subsurface disposal area.

Efficiency, Environmental Quality, and Oil Field Brines: The Success and Failure of Pollution Control by Self-Regulation

In the first half of the twentieth century, most firms sought to reduce emissions, effluents, and other pollution-causing discharges only when it resulted in the recovery of valuable material or decreased the amount of money spent on damage and nuisance suits. However, this did not necessarily mean that engineers and technical managers saw themselves—or the firms that employed them—as polluters. Rather, they assumed that as they made industrial operations more efficient, they would also address pollution concerns. This article illustrates the initial success and ultimate failure of this efficiency-based ethic of self-regulation by examining efforts to eliminate the pollution associated with the disposal of oil field brines. Until the 1950s, it argues, efforts to address problems associated with the disposal of oil field brines reinforced the notion that economic incentives to increase the efficiency of industrial operations overlapped with efforts to fight pollution. However, by the late 1950s, economic incentives proved incapable of encouraging further reductions in brine contamination. Yet pollution concerns remained. Since then, the efficiency-based ethic of self-regulation has gradually been replaced by an ethic that most people—and most firms—now treat as legitimate: reaching consensus on environmental objectives and then regulating pollution-causing discharges to meet those objectives.

The Impact of Ion Exchange Processes on Subsurface Brine Transport as Observed on Piper Diagrams

AbstractAn experimental study was conducted to assess how ion exchange processes, which occur during subsurface transport of oilfield brines, manifest themselves on graphical water quality diagrams. Concentrated brine soil column studies indicated sodium in the brine solution is able to exchange for calcium and magnesium on the soil, thereby retarding transport of sodium relative to the average ground‐water velocity and resulting in the development of a “hardness halo” at the leading edge of the brine plume. In this zone, calcium and magnesium concentrations exceed the values for both the brine and the fresh ground water. The hardness halo manifests itself as a characteristic deviation away from the mixing lines on the Piper diagram. Initially, the hardness halo causes concentrations to plot left of the fresh‐water end member in the cationic triangle. Chloride domination in oilfield brine causes concentrations to plot in the lower right corner of the anionic triangle almost immediately. After the hardness halo passes through the column, the sampling results show a characteristic pattern of movement parallel to the mixing line in the cation triangle or along the (decreasing) hardness axis of the upper diamond of the Piper diagram. The laboratory results were similar to those exhibited by monitoring well samples taken at a field site involving oilfield brine contamination. The results of this study show the Piper diagram to be potentially useful for early detection of brine contamination episodes.

The influence of brine contamination and phospho‐gypsum amendments on soil chemical properties and plant response

Abstract Phosphogypsum (PG), the by‐product of wet acid production of phosphoric acid from rock phosphate, was found to be effective as a soil conditioner for sodic, solonets, and solonetzic soils. Unlike mine gypsum, PG contains impurities whose release into soil and ground water need to be monitored. PG was incorporated with soils contaminated with oilfield brine to determinate the influence of PG amendments and brine contamination on soil chemical properties and plant response in a growth chamber. Application rates of PG were 0, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 Mg ha‐1 and the testing crop was Barley (Hardeum vulgare L.). Phosphogypsum provides a means of remediating brine spills and can result in benefits expressed as increased plant growth. Soil salinity of brine contaminated soils was ameliorated as evidenced by reduced the electrical conductivity, SAR and exchangeable Na levels in 0–15 cm depth of the columns. There is no evidence that application of PG increased the level of trace elements in plants. Contamination of soil with brine spill is the major factor dominating plant growth and soil‐plant element content. From plant growth point of view, two elements could be excessive, namely Boron (B), and Cadmium (Cd). The high level of B in the plant arose from brine spill and the cause for the excessive Cd level in barley grain is unknown and currently under investigation. The distribution of trace elements in soil profiles demonstrated that there was little, if any, potential for movement of trace elements into greater depths.

A review of the influence of clay–brine interactions on the geotechnical properties of Ca-montmorillonitic clayey soils from western Canada

Natural Ca-montmorillonite clay soils or engineered clay barriers in western Canada are often used to contain brine generated from the surface disposal of potash tailings or from drilling activities associated with the oil and gas industry. The performance of these barriers has ranged from excellent to poor. The influence of salt brines on the geotechnical properties of these soils has been recognized as a potentially important factor for some time. It has been well documented in the literature that the behavior of clayey soils is strongly influenced by physicochemical interactions between clay particles and pore-fluid chemistry; consequently, the properties of these soils are sensitive to changes in the electrolyte concentration of the pore fluid. An increase in the concentration of the pore fluid to the levels of a concentrated brine can cause significant changes in the geotechnical properties of the soil. In this paper, the impact of brine contamination on the geotechnical properties of two Ca-montmorillonitic clayey soils of glacial origin from western Canada is reviewed. The influence of clay–brine interactions on the index properties (liquid limit, plastic limit, plastic index, mineralogy, density, grain size, and compaction characteristics), mechanical properties (volume change and shear strength), and hydraulic properties (hydraulic conductivity) is described. A quantitative explanation for the changes that occur in the hydraulic and mechanical properties of these soils as a result of brine permeation is also provided. This explanation relates the changes in pore-fluid chemistry to changes in an effective physicochemical stress state. This approach may be used to predict the changes in hydraulic conductivity, volume, or shear strength of a clayey soil as a result of brine contamination. Key words : clay–brine interactions, diffuse double layer, hydraulic conductivity, soil structure, physicochemical.

Waste management schemes of potash mines in Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan's potash industry, when operating at capacity, produces 28 × 106 t of salt tailings and 11 × 106 m3 of concentrated brine per year. As a result, in excess of 250 × 106 t of tailings and lesser amounts of brine are stored on the ground surface in waste disposal basins consisting of a system of ponds and dykes. While the substantial quantities of solid waste represent an enormous task for eventual decommissioning, it is the seepage of brine into the surrounding soil and groundwater that is presently of most concern. Four general models are proposed to illustrate the role of hydrogeology in the selection of techniques for containment of potash wastes. This paper reviews waste management schemes in the Saskatchewan potash industry over the past 27 years and presents observations and qualitative evaluations of waste disposal practice of four mines that are representative of the proposed hydrological models. The four case histories identify problems that are common to all mines. The importance of design, operation, and proper monitoring programs is emphasized. The study found that a combination of different seepage barriers have been reasonably successful in preventing serious brine contamination. Shortcomings, where they exist, have been caused largely by unsatisfactory design and construction practices. These inadequacies are of concern to the industry and government regulatory agencies, but they have not yet seriously impeded orderly potash waste disposal. Key words: waste management, potash tailings, brine disposal, brine containment, seepage barriers, seepage control, refining practices, brine ponds.

CONTAMINATION OF SOIL WITH OILFIELD BRINE AND RECLAMATION WITH CALCIUM CHLORIDE

Contamination of soils with oilfield brines is a significant environmental problem in many oil production areas. The authors used soil column technique to study details of the brine contamination process and subsequent reclamation of contaminated soil with CaCl{sub 2}. Cherry silt loam (fine-silty, mixed, frigid typic Ustochrepts) was contaminated with brine of 0.9 mole fraction NaCl in total electrolyte concentration of 3,000 mol (p{sup +}) m{sup {minus}3} under conditions approximating steady-state miscible displacement. Dispersion of observed Na breakthrough during contamination was only marginally greater than that of Cl. The isotherm for Ca exchange by Na is ordinary unfavorable with large associated exchange-dispersion in miscible displacement. However, the strength of brine used here was high enough to render exchange quasifavorable. Calculations under a simple exchange-chromatographic model indicated that Na flux in these conditions would be subject to a relatively small level of exchange-dispersion. Sufficient Ca was applied (0.24 mol m{sup {minus}3} CaCl{sub 2} in 0.2 liter) to replace exchangeable Na (ES) in the uppermost 16 cm of brine-contaminated columns (inside diameter, 12.7 cm), which were then leached with either distilled water (DW) or synthesized saline groundwater (SW; SAR = 5.9, electrolyte = 53 mol (p{sup +}) m{sup {minus}3}). Leaching was continuedmore » until soil dispersion occurred, with 0.54 and 0.68 pore volumes, respectively, of DW and SW infiltrated. Reclamation was demonstrated to be very efficient, with an 89% and 92% removal of ES through the upper 16-cm soil depth being accomplished by DW and SW, respectively.« less

An Integrated Approach to Identifying the Salinity Source Contaminating a Ground‐Water Supply

AbstractAn integrated approach involving geohydrological, geochemical, and geophysical methods was used to determine the source of salinity contaminating a ground‐water supply in an area of Ohio where three possible sources existed: road salting, naturally saline ground waters at depth, and formation brines placed in surface pits during drilling of a gas well. Changes in chloride concentrations during pumping tests of contaminated wells indicated that the main source of salinity was derived from within the water‐table aquifer. Mixing curves of Br/Cl versus chloride concentration were used to determine which of each of the three salinity sources was the primary source affecting different well waters. The major source affecting the ground‐water supply was found to be the formation brines associated with the gas well drilling.Geophysical surveys using electromagnetic induction (Geonics EM–31) and dipole‐dipole electrical resistivity methods provided a three‐dimensional view of the brine contamination plume in the unsaturated and saturated zones in the area of the gas well. The plume location and orientation confirmed that the formation brine from the blow‐down pits used during drilling of a nearby gas well was the primary source polluting the ground‐water supply in the study area.

REPLY TO the preceding Discussion by Don Clabaugh of “Hydrochemical Characterization of Brines and Identification of Brine Contamination in Aquifers”

GroundwaterVolume 27, Issue 2 p. 248-249 REPLY TO the preceding Discussion by Don Clabaugh of “Hydrochemical Characterization of Brines and Identification of Brine Contamination in Aquifers” Stephanie A. Novak, Stephanie A. NovakSearch for more papers by this authorYoram Eckstein, Yoram EcksteinSearch for more papers by this author Stephanie A. Novak, Stephanie A. NovakSearch for more papers by this authorYoram Eckstein, Yoram EcksteinSearch for more papers by this author First published: March 1989 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1989.tb00448.xAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume27, Issue2March 1989Pages 248-249 RelatedInformation

DISCUSSION OF “Hydrochemical Characterization of Brines and Identification of Brine Contamination in Aquifers,” by Stephanie A. Novak and Yoram Eckstein, May‐June 1988 issue, v. 26, no. 3, pp. 317–324

GroundwaterVolume 27, Issue 2 p. 248-248 DISCUSSION OF “Hydrochemical Characterization of Brines and Identification of Brine Contamination in Aquifers,” by Stephanie A. Novak and Yoram Eckstein, May-June 1988 issue, v. 26, no. 3, pp. 317–324 Don Clabaugh, Don Clabaugh Project Manager Bennett & Williams, Inc., 2700 E. Dublin Granville Rd., Suite 550, Columbus, Ohio 43229Search for more papers by this author Don Clabaugh, Don Clabaugh Project Manager Bennett & Williams, Inc., 2700 E. Dublin Granville Rd., Suite 550, Columbus, Ohio 43229Search for more papers by this author First published: March 1989 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1989.tb00447.xAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume27, Issue2March 1989Pages 248-248 RelatedInformation

Hydrochemical Characterization of Brines and Identification of Brine Contamination in Aquifersa

ABSTRACTHydrochemical investigations of aquifer contamination by brine are usually approached using conventional graphical methods (i.e. Stiff, Piper, and Schoeller diagrams). While these methods may be used successfully to identify brine in distinction from other contaminants (e.g., road deicing agents) in ground water, they are unsuccessful in differentiating between brine contaminants from different stratigraphic origins. We present a methodology to be employed in hydrochemical investigations of suspected brine contamination, which incorporates the use of select ionic ratios [Ca:Mg, Na:Ca, Na;Mg, Na:Cl, K:Cl, K:Na, Mg:K, Ca:K, Cl:Mg, Cl:Ca, and (Ca + Mg):(Na + K)] in discriminant analysis and modified graphical methods. The method is tested by applying it to an area of known brine contamination in northeastern Ohio. The results of the test indicate that the method is successful in identifying brine as a contaminant in ground water and in identifying the stratigraphic origin of the brine. This method, when combined with information obtained from drilling reports, can be used to suggest a point source for the brine contamination.

Discrimination of factors influencing biota of a stream receiving multiple-source perturbations

Blaine Creek is a fifth-order stream located in eastern Kentucky that has been subject to contamination by oil brines, surface mining, and a coal fly ash settling pond discharge. Toxicity tests, effluent and receiving water chemical monitoring, and Blaine Creek benthic sampling were used to evaluate the effect of the ash pond effluent on the creek. Reproductive impairment of Ceriodaphnia was demonstrated at effluent concentrations ranging from 30 to 100%, but no instream impact on benthic invertebrates could be found at effluent flows that provided up to 65% of the creek's discharge. Correlation and regression analysis of physicochemical versus benthic monitoring data indicated that upstream oil brine contamination and scouring of the creek's predominately shifting sand substrate during rainfall events were the primary factors affecting the benthic fauna, and appeared to override potential effects from other sources. These results demonstrated the value of integrated field/laboratory investigations for effluent impact assessments.

IDENTIFICATION OF AN OPTIMAL GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN A CONTAMINATED AQUIFER1

ABSTRACTA groundwater hydraulic management model is used to identify the optimal strategy for allocating limited fresh‐water supplies and containing wastes in a hypothetical aquifer affected by brine contamination from surface disposal ponds. The present cost of pumping from a network of potential supply and interception wells is minimized over a five‐year planning period, subject to a set of hydraulic, institutional, and legal constraints. Hydraulic constraints are formulated using linear systems theory to describe drawdown and velocity variables as linear functions of supply and interception well discharge decision variables. Successful validation of the optimal management strategy suggests that the model formulation can feasibly be applied to define management options for locally contaminated aquifer systems which are used to fulfill fresh‐water demands.

Sodium ion poisoning in livestock from oil field wastes

Disposal of salt water presents a potentially serious environmental pollution problem. Solar evaporating ponds provide a temporary solution but the residue salts remain as a potential polluter. Flooding of slush pits and evaporation ponds is another potential source of brine contamination of fresh water supplies.