Clay Bricks Research Articles

Improvement of engineering properties and environmental impact of fired clay bricks utilizing industry sludge waste

Improvement of engineering properties and environmental impact of fired clay bricks utilizing industry sludge waste

Green building development utilising modified fired clay bricks and eggshell waste

The inadequate thermal insulation of the building envelope contributes significantly to the high power consumption of air conditioners in houses. A crucial factor in raising a building’s energy efficiency involves utilizing bricks with high thermal resistance. This issue is accompanied by another critical challenge: recycling and disposing of waste in a way that is both economically and environmentally beneficial, including using it to fuel industrial growth, in order to reduce the harmful effects of waste on the environment as waste generation in our societies grows. To this end, the current study sought to assess whether integrating a specific amount of eggshell waste as CaCO3 filler within bricks consistently produces fired clay bricks with desirable thermal insulation capabilities. By systematically investigating the physicochemical and thermal characteristics of bricks doped with varying eggshell content, this work demonstrates how waste materials can be repurposed to produce sustainable construction materials with superior performance. The results highlight significant improvements in thermal conductivity, diffusivity, and effusivity, alongside favorable changes in porosity, bulk density, and mechanical strength. The XRD analysis revealed that once the firing temperature rises, a high insulation feature arises due to siliceous melt formation. EDX analysis gave important insights into the impact of eggshell dopants on the physicochemical parameters of burnt clay bricks. Compared to pristine brick, CEs7% brick constructed with clay and 7 wt% eggshell exhibited a 38.7% loss on dry shrinkage, an enhancement on average pore size of 78.8%, an apparent porosity of 52.7%, a bulk density of 8.3%, and a compressive strength of 57.5%. The reduced shrinkage enhances stability, while increased pore size and porosity improve thermal insulation, making the bricks more durable and energy-efficient. In this regard, the brick containing 10% eggshell that was fired at 1100°C possessed the greatest drop in heat conductivity (i.e., 50%), thermal diffusivity (30%), and thermal effusivity (30%) as compared to the pure one. Given the aforementioned findings, these additions hold the potential to reduce the energy required for both heating and cooling buildings. This brings us to the conclusion that combining eggshell waste to create calcium silicate makes it feasible to be utilized as a thermal insulation material, paving the way for improved construction materials’ performance and sustainability.

Optimisation of mechanical and thermal properties of clay bricks from Rissani-Morocco using Box-Behnken experimental design

As global energy demands continue to increase, the construction industry, known for its high energy consumption, is in greater need of materials that are both lightweight and thermally efficient. Porous bricks were elaborated using organic waste additives to explore the relationship between compressive strength (CS) and thermal performance. To determine the optimal conditions, for producing fired clay bricks with enhanced strength and low thermal conductivity (TC) a multi-objective optimisation approach was employed. We considered three factors: the pore-forming additive ratio (0–5% by weight of wheat straw), firing temperature (25–900 °C), and liquid-to-solid ratio (17–21%), using a 3-factor, 3-level Box-Behnken design for optimisation. Standard analysis methods were used to assess the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of the fired bricks. Predictive models were developed for CS and TC, with the objectives being to minimise TC while maximising CS. The results showed that firing temperature (X 1) positively influenced CS, while the wheat straw ratio (X 2) negatively affected it. For TC, X 1 had a reducing effect, aligning with the goal of minimising TC, while X 2 demonstrated its effectiveness as a pore-forming agent.

The Properties of Sustainable Fired Clay Bricks Incorporating Eggshell and Recycled Glass Waste

Fired clay bricks have been integral to construction for centuries, valued for their inherent strength and durability. However, the substantial energy demands and greenhouse gas emissions from the high-temperature brick firing process pose pressing environmental concerns. The scarcity of quality clay deposits for brickmaking has also raised fears of resource depletion. Eggshells, comprised of nearly 95% calcium carbonate, undergo a chemical transformation during firing that enhances compressive strength and reduces porosity in bricks. A recent study showed that using eggshell waste to replace clay in brick is positive. Meanwhile, soda lime silica, produced by recycling waste glass, forms a protective glaze-like coating on brick surfaces, lowering required firing temperatures and improving thermal insulation. Different eggshell powder concrete bricks were developed by replacing 0%,5%, and 10% in the clay and soda lime silica mixture to find the best composition of the brick with the desired properties. The enhanced performance of these bricks can be attributed to the inclusion of eggshells in the clay and soda lime silica mixture. As a result, the green approach conserves natural resources while meeting sustainability goals, charting a new course for environmentally responsible brick manufacturing. The findings highlight the potential of utilising eggshells to enhance the properties of clay bricks to improve their characteristic and mitigate waste reduction associated with the egg industry. The study suggests that incorporating eggshell waste into burned clay bricks improves properties and offers a sustainable approach to waste management. Compression and water absorption tests assess the brick's structural integrity and durability. The study output was positive, demonstrating incorporating soda lime silica and eggshell into brick formulations with weight ratios of 50/50 and 60/40 is effective. Compared to current bricks that are available on the market, these modified bricks exhibit enhanced sustainability and potentially improved material properties.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Decarbonization Potential of Global Fired Clay Brick Production.

Fired clay bricks (FCBs) are a dominant building material globally due to their low cost and simplicity of production, especially in low- and middle-income countries. With a projected rising housing demand, commensurate growth in brick demand is anticipated, the production of which could result in significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Robust models are needed to estimate brick demand and emissions to systematically address decarbonization pathways. Few sources report production values; hence, we present two novel proxy models: (i) a consumption prediction model, relying on country-specific clay extraction data, dynamic building stock modeling, and average material intensity use allowing for projections to 2050; and (ii) a GHG emissions model, using literature-based data and production technology-specific inputs. Based on these models, the current global FCB consumption is estimated as 2.18 Gt annually, resulting in approximately 500 million tCO2e (1% of current global GHG emissions). If unaddressed, this fraction could increase to 3.5-5% in 2050 considering a moderate SSP 2-4.5 climate change mitigation scenario. Consequently, we explored three potential decarbonization pathways: (i) improving energy efficiency; (ii) shifting production to best practices; and (iii) replacing half of FCB demand with hollow concrete blocks, resulting in 27%, 49%, and 51% reduction in GHG emissions, respectively.

Application of burnt clay bricks (BCBs) as a building material for housing projects in Ghana

Application of burnt clay bricks (BCBs) as a building material for housing projects in Ghana

Reducing Air‐Conditioning Load by Using an Insulating Material in Iraq as a Case Study (Experimental and Numerical)

ABSTRACTThis paper has studied different types of walls using constant interior and exterior finishing materials (thermostone, 200‐mm thick (A); fired clay bricks, 240‐mm thick (B); hollow concrete blocks, 200‐mm thick (C); solid concrete blocks, 140‐mm thick (D); and limestone, 200‐mm thick (E)) due to the availability of many different types of building materials in Iraq and the lack of control over the best use to demonstrate how each of these materials affects a building's insulation to deliver the appropriate levels of comfort and achieve the greatest possible reduction in the electrical energy needed for air conditioning. A unique chamber was created for performing the actual trials on such walls in their natural environment, which was the climate of the city of Baghdad (zip code 10016, 33° N latitude, 44° E longitude). The tests have been done both in their current state of operation and with the addition of thermal insulation (60‐mm thick microfiber glass insulation material). The values for electricity consumption by a wall without insulation are 92, 121, 199, 148, and 138 kW/m2, in cases noted as A1, B1, C1, D1, and E1, respectively. However, when the insulator is used, the values become 58, 63, 51, 100, and 92 kW/m2 for the cases noted as A2, B2, C2, D2, and E2, respectively. The percentage reduction in electrical energy consumed by the air conditioner used within the room with and without thermal insulation has been recorded in the range of 50%–65% and 25%–60%, respectively. Depending on the model used, and compared with the traditional model, the saving difference with and without insulation was 15% and 35%, respectively. The best case is C2, because it has no effect on the room's interior area. Also, the cooling load was less than in other cases; it was 51 kW/m2 and had the highest building electrical savings, which are 65% when taking the wall in case C1 as a reference.

Physico-mechanical properties of autoclaved aerated concrete block as an alternative to traditional bricks

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) can be treated as a sustainable construction material as it decreases environmental impact while enhancing urban development quality, aligning with sustainable development goal (SDG) 11 of United Nations. The present study aims to compare the properties of the AAC blocks with that of traditional bricks such as fly ash brick and clay brick to emphasize the distinct advantages and limitations of AAC blocks, proposing AAC as a potential alternative in construction sector. AAC blocks of different aluminum powder (0.025 % and 0.05 % Al) and the masonry prisms of these AAC blocks as well as fly ash bricks and clay bricks were prepared in the laboratory. The compressive strength of AAC block was found to be 5.01 N/mm2 which is higher than the minimum strength according to IS code. The compressive strength of a masonry unit was observed greater than that of masonry prisms in all cases. It was found that the AAC blocks contain minimal moisture, thus suitable for the walls subjected to damp environments continuously as compared to the walls prepared by using fly ash bricks and clay bricks. The microstructural morphology was also obtained using scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipment. It had been observed that the pore size enlarged with the inclusion of Al powder in AAC. As a result, the weight of AAC block reduced, thereby the density and compressive strength also decreased. Due to this characteristic, a masonry structure constructed with AAC blocks is recommended to perform well during earthquake in terms of seismic resistant compared to a structure prepared with traditional bricks. Furthermore, resource-based cost analysis method had been adopted to demonstrate with an example of model room that the cost of building construction can be reduced with the employment of AAC blocks by 29% and 36% as compared to clay bricks and fly ash bricks respectively.

Retraction notice to “Development and evaluation of green fired clay bricks using industrial and agricultural wastes” [Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 17 (2022) e01391]

Retraction notice to “Development and evaluation of green fired clay bricks using industrial and agricultural wastes” [Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 17 (2022) e01391]

Influence of particle size on the pozzolanic reactivity of waste clay brick accessed by R3 test

Influence of particle size on the pozzolanic reactivity of waste clay brick accessed by R3 test

Characterization of Porous Fired Clay Brick Incorporating Bamboo Leaf

Characterization of Porous Fired Clay Brick Incorporating Bamboo Leaf

Geomechanical study of the Bi-stabilization of clay with sugarcane molasses and coconut fiber for sustainable construction

Abstract This study examines the effectiveness of the bi-stabilization of clay soils using cane molasses and coconut fiber, focusing on improving the geotechnical and mechanical properties of clay. The performance of the two stabilizers, both individually and in combination for bistabilization, was assessed. The geotechnical properties were determined through sieve analysis, Proctor tests, and Atterberg limit methods, while the mechanical properties were measured using a hydraulic press. The results showed that cane molasses reduced plasticity, enhanced soil cohesion, and increased dry density with molasses content. The Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit, and consistency index) were maximized at a 4% molasses content, with respective increases of 9.28%, 44.80%, and 37.9% compared to clay without molasses (CB). Coconut fiber improved the flexural strength by 361.9% for CF1, whereas molasses improved the compressive strength by 12.24% compared to plain clay. Bi-stabilization allowed for a maximum improvement in flexural strength of 509.52% compared to CB, 49.42% compared to molasses-stabilized clay bricks (CSM), and 31.96% compared to clay composites with coconut fiber (CF). The compressive strength improved by 22.54% compared with CB, 9.21% compared with CSM8, and 14.94% compared with CF½. In summary, bi-stabilization with sugarcane molasses and coconut fiber provided enhanced performance compared with their individual use.

One-part alkali-activated mortars based on clay brick waste, natural pozzolan waste, and marble powder waste

In Türkiye, waste clay bricks (WCB) comprise significant construction and demolition waste. Most research is based on producing WCB-based two-part alkali-activated materials (AAM). Compared to their conventional, two-part alkali-activated counterparts, one-part AAM offers several advantages, such as being more practical, safe, and easy to use. Thus, they may be an excellent choice for commercial construction applications and on-site casting. However, research data on producing WCB-based one-part alkali-activated mortars is limited. The relatively low reactivity of WCB can be increased by replacing WCB with ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA). Unlike these by-products, Nevşehir pozzolan (NP) and marble powder (MP), which are produced as wastes during the stone-cutting process, may be evaluated to produce AAM. This study aims to assess the production possibilities of WCB-based one-part alkali-activated mortar, determine the optimum substitution ratios with NP and MP o improve the mechanical properties, and determine the effects of the curing period up to 365 days. Results showed that the optimum NP substitution ratio was 50%, which increased reaction development, microstructure compactness, and mechanical properties. The highest CS (UV) (3.70 km/s) and compressive strength (CS) (21.58 MPa) were obtained in 25WC-B:75MP-containing samples. The increase in properties with the curing period was especially high in the first 28 days.

Strength and Durability Performance of Hybrid Alkaline Clay Brick Waste –Coconut Shell Ash Cement

Hybrid Alkaline Cement (HAC) has the potential to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) and improve concrete structure. The durability of a hybrid alkaline mortar made from a mixture of calcined clay brick waste (CBW) and coconut shell ash (CSA) was compared with that of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and pozzolanic Portland cement (PPC), which are the two common types of Portland cement. In an open furnace, CSA was obtained by burning coconut shells collected from Kilifi County, Kenya. At the same time, CBW was sampled from brick production and construction sites in Kibwezi sub-county, Kenya, and ground using a laboratory ball mill. Various cement blends were prepared by mixing different mass ratios of OPC:CSA: CBW and activated with 0.5 M and 2 M Sodium sulfate solutions, maintaining a solution-to-cement ratio of 0.5. Control mortar prisms were cast using distilled water and cured in distilled water. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) was used for correlation analysis. Compressive strength development, water sorptivity, Porosity, oxygen permeability index, and thermal resistance were investigated for durability properties. Accelerated chloride ingress and chloride ion diffusion coefficients were determined. Results show that alkali-activated samples exhibited lower sorptivity, Porosity, chloride ingress, and higher compressive strength, oxygen permeability index, and thermal resistance than the cement mix prepared with water. The mix designs 5-1-4, 5-4-1, 3-1-6, and 3-6-1 demonstrated a decreasing optimum performance comparable to OPC in that order. The formulation 5-1-4, prepared with 2 M Sodium sulfate, showed the highest durability in all tests. Moreover, mortar durability was highly influenced by the amount of cement substituted, the kind of precursor, and the concentration of alkali activator.

Comparison of Compressive Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics of Cement stabilized Earth Blocks Reinforced with Banana and Jute fibers

This paper discusses the influence of textile fiber reinforcement with concrete materials for evaluating the mechanical property and water absorption of banana and jute fiber reinforced conventional sand block for calculating the suitability in affordable and environment friendly construction material production. The experimental design was completely randomized with three categories like treated earth block, untreated earth block and clay brick. The treated blocks were representing 47.4 MPa Compressive strength whereas an untreated block was represented as on average 14.2 MPa. Meanwhile, the untreated earth block result is 15.5% and clay brick result is 19.2% which is maximum for the water absorption test. It was identified from the study that the water absorption rate must remain below 22% to guarantee the material's longevity. This experimental work study was found that the comparison between blocks with no fiber reinforcement and blocks with banana and jute reinforcement which can include extra compressive strength and water absorbency as per Bangladesh Standards & Testing Institute (BSTI). It was found that the difference in properties of a block by adding banana and jute fibers in the conventional sand blocks. These efforts were necessary to ensure the environment friendly technology of textile reinforced concrete gets widely accepted for building affordable and durable constructions.

Use of waste clay brick powder as a partial replacement binder in geo-polymer concrete

Use of waste clay brick powder as a partial replacement binder in geo-polymer concrete

Effects of Locust Bean Pod (Parkia Biglobosa) Extract on Workability and Strength of Concrete

Purpose: Predominantly in the northern part of Ghana and other neighbouring West African countries, the Locust Bean Pod Extract (LBPE), known for its adhesive and cohesive properties, has enjoyed high patronage in its incorporation in various traditional construction formulations, especially in the production of clay floor tiles and bricks for some time now. To justify the material’s continual use, this paper explored the impact of the LBPE on the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Design/Methodology/Approach: LBPE was obtained by soaking the pods in 10g per litre of water for different extraction periods. Based on LBPE replacement percentages and soaking durations, 469 concrete cubes were formed from 9 different concrete mixes. The slumps for the various mixes and the strength of hardened concrete were tested after curing durations of 7 days to 28 days. Findings: The experimental results revealed that LBPE enhanced the strength of concrete and gave it more workable mixes than concrete made with ordinary water. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis on the control indicates the presence of Oligoclase, whilst the LBPE samples indicate the presence of Albite. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis revealed the differences in element composition of both the control and LBPE samples. LBPE extraction at 4 days and 75% LBPE replacement of water achieved 54.67% more 28-day strength and over 21% more workability than the control. Fourier Transform Infrared results indicate that tannins are the primary functional element in LBPE. Research Limitations: This study established that replacing water with LBPE significantly improves the workability and strength of concrete. The extraction at 4 days and 75% water replacement with LBPE yielded optimum results. Practical implications: This study provides a sustainable and low-cost solution to the mutually exclusive problem of increasing concrete workability and strength. Social Implication: This study will assist practising engineers in dealing with the issue of artisans increasing the water-cement ratio of mixes to obtain workable mixes, which results in weak concrete strength and subsequent failure of concrete structures Originality/ Value: This original experimental laboratory study addresses the problem of artisans using too much water to mix concrete to ensure workable mixes.

Effect of Biomass-Based Additives on the Thermal, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of Fired Clay Bricks: A Review

Effect of Biomass-Based Additives on the Thermal, Physical, and Mechanical Properties of Fired Clay Bricks: A Review

Diagonal Shear Strength of Masonry Wall Using Mortar Joints Mixed with Rubber Tire Crumbs and Fly Ash

Recently, a lot of research has been developed to determine the usefulness of mortar mixed with rubber tire crumbs, which is often called RTC mortar. The advantages of RTC mortar are that it is lighter, more ductile, and has better damping capabilities than ordinary mortar. However, RTC mortar has a weakness, namely its low compressive strength. Several studies have added fly ash to RTC mortar, and it is known to increase the compressive strength of the mortar. This research aims to determine the diagonal shear strength of masonry walls if the mortar joints use RTC mortar with the addition of fly ash. Laboratory testing uses 1⁄2 brick masonry wall test specimens measuring 300x300 mm2 which are composed of clay bricks and mortar joints referring to ASTM E519-02. The research results show that the addition of fly ash to RTC mortar can increase the compressive strength of the mortar, but results in the shear strength of the masonry wall decreasing. To use RTC mortar mixed with fly ash as mortar joints in masonry walls, additional materials need to be considered to increase the bond strength between the mortar and the brick. The effect of adding fly ash to RTC mortar on the bond strength between the mortar and bricks needs to be investigated further.

MICROSCOPICAL EXPLORATION OF POND ASH-INDUCED COMPRESSED INTERLOCKING BRICKS

Burnt clay bricks are widely used across India and remain one of the most essential materials in building construction. However, the excessive extraction of clay poses a threat to society, as brick kilns largely rely on high-quality clay sourced from agricultural land. To counter this issue this study evaluates the compressive strength and microstructural characteristics of pond ash-induced compressed interlocking bricks made using fly ash, pond ash, quarry dust, and varying amounts of lime and cement. Four different mixes (S1 to S4) were tested for compressive strength after 28 days, with the S2 mix containing 10% lime and no cement achieving the highest strength of 5.48 N/mm². SEM analysis showed a dense microstructure in S2, while S1 exhibited unreacted fly ash and calcium hydroxide, resulting in a lower strength of 3.94 N/mm². XRD results confirmed the presence of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel in S2, responsible for the enhanced strength. EDAX analysis highlighted the highest calcium content in S2, further indicating the extensive pozzolanic reactions leading to better densification. The study confirms that the use of lime alone, in the absence of cement, can result in higher compressive strength through improved microstructural development.