Brick Cladding Research Articles

Down-to-Earth Types: Brick Buildings and the Bounds of Propriety in Berlin and Hamburg, 1904–14

Abstract As the go-to cladding material for a range of new utilitarian building types, machine-made brick appeared across Germany during the industrial boom of the 1890s. In response, in 1904, the Bund Heimatschutz (League of Homeland Protection) was formed to defend the traditional German landscape against the visual blight of industrialization. The organization began campaigning against the use of brick cladding, which it viewed as a sin against propriety and national character. By 1914, however, the situation had changed, and bricks and ceramics had firmly cemented their place within the bounds of cultural permissibility for architectural façades. Focusing on Berlin and Hamburg, this article discusses the processes that enabled the acceptance of brick cladding, shedding new light on the changing character of architectural theory during the prewar era, as architects forged new tools to reconcile history and modern life.

Impact of different water penetration criteria and cavity ventilation rates on the risk of mold growth in timber frame walls with brick veneer cladding

The present paper investigates the impact of different water penetration criteria on the risk for damage in a common type of building envelope in Nordic countries, timber frame walls with brick masonry veneer. The studied walls are evaluated based on one damage criterion, the risk of mold growth. The study investigates several parameters: water penetration criterion, type of moisture source (uniformly distributed or point source) and its position in the wall assembly, air change rate (ACR) (representing different workmanship scenarios), wind-driven rain (WDR) coefficient, and locations (Gothenburg and Rensjön, with different average annual rainfall and temperature). Two criteria on how to implement water penetration are compared: a) a commonly accepted reference model that assumes one percent of all wind-driven rain deposited on the façade to penetrate the clay brick cladding, and b) a new criterion stating that 3.8% of WDR penetrates when the water content of the brick veneer cladding is above 90% of its saturation capacity. The simulation is done for a thirteen-year period with WUFI Pro and WUFI 2D. The results indicate the greater importance of implementing water penetration compared to ventilation in cavities. Further, the findings suggest that the moisture source’s location significantly impacts the mold growth risk. The results also show that the choice of the WDR coefficient affects the risks, which suggests that this factor needs accurate quantification for hygrothermal analyses. The results in this study suggest that an effective measure for the design/maintenance of such walls should incorporate: a) limiting the amount of water penetrating through the cladding, particularly stopping water from reaching the sensitive elements, i.e., timber studs, b) removing extruded mortar stemming from poor workmanship, if any, which may act as a capillary bridge.

Assessing mould growth risk of wood-frame walls using partial least squares (PLS) regression considering climate model uncertainties

Hygrothermal simulations are a common method for assessing the moisture performance of walls. With climate change, it is crucial to evaluate how walls will respond to future conditions. However, future climatic data is subject to uncertainties, and evaluating wall responses with these uncertainties require a large number of simulations. To address this challenge, a meta-model was developed based on Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression as an alternative to hygrothermal simulations. A PLS model was firstly developed for a brick cladding wall and this study demonstrates the applicability of the model to cover other wall configurations and climatic uncertainties due to the initial conditions assumed in the climate model. A modified brick model was proposed for stucco cladding walls and its performance was verified with the simulation results for three Canadian cities under two climate periods: historical (1986–2016) and future (2062–2092), considering the worst-case scenario when global temperature is projected to increase by 3.5 °C at the end of the century based on the RCP 8.5 emission scenario. The results showed that the PLS model results in a similar performance as simulations for stucco cladding wall and different climate runs. The predicted results from the meta-model can be used as a screening measure to limit the number of simulations to cases where the predicted hygrothermal performance is above a certain threshold set by the user. The general approach will be applied to additional wall claddings such as wood-siding, other emission scenarios, and additional geographical locations representing different weather characteristics.

Novel water penetration criterion for clay brick masonry claddings

• Investigated water absorption and water penetration in clay brick masonry. • Prepared masonry triplets with three different joint profiles for experiments. • Measure no water penetration till water content exceeds 90% of saturation capacity. Despite the impact of water penetration on the performance of building envelopes, no general agreement is available on implementing water penetration due to wind-driven rain (WDR) in hygrothermal and moisture safety analyses. This study proposes a novel criterion for water penetration in clay brick masonry that depends on the water content level of masonry. An experimental campaign investigating water penetration in clay brick masonry exposed to uniform water spray is conducted on masonry triplets prepared from bricks with different water absorption properties and three mortar joint profiles. During each test, water absorption and water penetration are registered continuously. The results show that no water penetration occurs unless the water content of the specimens is above 90% of their saturation capacity. The saturation level at which penetration starts is consistent across all joint profiles and brick types. Accordingly, exposure to driving rain at levels below the threshold may not lead to water penetration. The utility and implications of the proposed criterion are briefly demonstrated by analyzing water content and water penetration in a clay brick masonry façade. The resulting water penetration is compared with the results obtained using a commonly accepted reference model that assumes one percent of all wind-driven rain deposited on the façade to penetrate the clay brick cladding. By linking water penetration in clay brick masonry to the water content, the proposed criterion is an attempt to logically explain a phenomenon of high scientific and practical relevance for moisture analyses of a frequently used type of building envelope.

Hygrothermal performance assessment of wood frame walls under historical and future climates using partial least squares regression

The objective of this study was to develop a prediction model for predicting the mould growth risk in wood-frame walls. A machine learning algorithm, the Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression was used for developing the model. Hygrothermal simulations were performed for a wood-frame wall with brick cladding using hourly historical and projected future climate data for cities located in different climate zones across Canada. The mould index calculated at the exterior layer of OSB was used as the response variable in the PLS model and the most relevant climate parameters were used as inputs including: temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, wind-driven rain, and solar radiation normal to the façade. The model was trained using a training set comprising two climate periods and different wall orientations for three cities. It was then used to predict the mould index for other years and wall orientations without performing the simulations. The coefficient of determination (R2), the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) was used to evaluate the model's accuracy. Also, ranking and mould risk category analysis were carried out to assess the model's ability to rank the years according to their moisture severity. Results showed that with proper selection of training dataset, the model can be effectively used to predict the hygrothermal performance of brick-clad wood-frame wall assemblies in the selected cities and over both historical and future climates.

Határkő

A client's dream to have a Scandina - vian styled home in Budapest took form when remodelling an existing villa in the Buda Hills. Faced with the problems of an extremely steep site, hard to access by car, and the need for will lit spaces the designers adopted the idea of reversing the home: entrance, garage and living spaces sitting above the bedrooms and ancillary functions. Working with brick cladding, raw concrete, and daylighting as design tools a balance between exterior and interior has been achieved. Whether or not the home is Scandinavian in style is open for question as it seems to fit comfortably alongside its contemporaries found in modern Hungarian architecture.

Sensitivity analysis of hygrothermal performance of wood framed wall assembly under different climatic conditions: the impact of cladding properties

One of the parameters that influences the moisture performance of the wood framed wall assembly is the material properties of exterior cladding. The uncertainties of its properties, would result in a range of wall performance. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of uncertainties in cladding material properties on moisture performance of wood framed wall assembly under different climatic conditions. A wood framed (2×6 wood stud) wall with exterior brick cladding was simulated assuming 1% rain leakage deposited on the exterior side of sheathing membrane. A parametric study was carried out to analyze the impact of the cladding properties on the moisture response of OSB. The simulations were conducted in five different cities located in different climate zones across Canada. The aim was to identify the most influential cladding property on the moisture response of OSB, i.e., mould growth index and moisture content, to the varying cladding properties under different climatic conditions i.e., different cities under historical and future conditions. In general, it was found that liquid diffusivity is the parameter that has the most influence on moisture response of OSB in all the five cities. Also, the significance of this influence varies depending on the climatic conditions.

Recovery of Polymer Waste in the Production of Ceramics Veneer with a Self-glazing Effect

The results of studies on the development of the composition of the charge based on low-plasticity clay using waste products from the consumption of products made of unplasticized polyvinyl chloride are presented. In addition, boric acid as a flux and titanium dioxide as a source of the vitreous phase are introduced into the composition of the charge to obtain the effects of vitrification of the surface of ceramic particles and self-glazing of the surface of the samples. The dependences of the main properties of ceramics veneer on the ratio between the amounts of polymer waste and titanium dioxide with the introduction of 5% by weight of boric acid have been established. The quantities of charge components that ensure the energy efficiency of the developed ceramics while ensuring strength, water absorption and frost resistance at a level corresponding to the requirements for products for brick cladding of buildings and structures have been determined. The use of this composition expands the range and raw material base for the production of ceramics veneer, allow you to dispose of polymer waste at any degree of purity and destruction in sufficiently large quantities.

Thermal resistance of ventilated air-spaces behind external claddings; definitions and challenges (ASHRAE 1759-RP)

The presence of an air-space within a building envelope is known to have a varying contribution to the overall thermal performance of the wall assembly due to the combined effect of convection and radiation in the air cavity. In particular, the thermal resistance of a ventilated air-space can vary significantly depending on multiple environmental and thermo-physical parameters. Although the thermal resistance of enclosed air-spaces in the building structures has been thoroughly investigated in the literature, it has not been defined for a ventilated cavity. This paper aims to introduce the plausible definitions of the thermal resistance of a vertical ventilated air-space behind external cladding systems. Both theoretical and applied formulations are provided and compared. The energy balance method is used to model the steady-state heat transfer through two types of traditional external wall systems (i.e., brick and vinyl siding) in summer and winter conditions. A range of air exchange rates in the cavity is examined, and the effect of the presence of reflective insulation in the air-space on the thermal resistance of the air gap is analyzed. The results show that the presence of a ventilated cavity in the wall assembly can influence the thermal performance of the building envelope. In particular, the effective thermal resistance of a ventilated air-space behind a brick cladding wall could be between 0.17 and 1.85 times the thermal resistance of the cladding in the range of air change rate in the cavity from 0 to 100 1/h. The effective thermal resistance of the ventilated air gap behind vinyl siding could reach up to 9 times the thermal resistance of the cladding.

Assessing ventilation cavity design impact on the energy performance of rainscreen wall assemblies: A CFD study

The impact of the ventilation cavity design on the energy performance of the rainscreen wall assembly was numerically investigated in CFD. The ventilated cavity design parameters considered were the cladding material type (i.e. Fibre cement, brick, and metal cladding), the sheathing membrane emissivity coefficient (i.e. 0.1–0.9), the ventilated cavity height (i.e. 1H and 2H) and the air gap width (i.e. 13 mm–50 mm). The CFD model was validated with experimental data and a dynamic simulation for a typical hot day and cold day is performed for a timestep interval of 5 min. The heat flux through the wall assembly was compared amongst the design alternatives. For the range of parameters considered, the ventilated cavity construct with brick cladding, sheathing membrane emissivity of 0.1, one-storey ventilated cavity, and 13 mm air gap width minimized the heat loss for a typical cold day. However, ventilated cavity construct with brick cladding, sheathing membrane emissivity of 0.1, one-storey ventilated cavity, and 50 mm air gap width minimized the heat gain for a typical hot day.

Novel micron-thick brick cladding of polyfluorosilicone acrylates, a case study of conservation of historic brick wall in Hongcun village

A micron-thick (3–5 μm) and transparent cladding technique based on the environment friendly dimethyl carbonate solution of newly developed polyfluorosilicone acrylates was successfully applied to restore the surface of brick walls of a historic house which has been severely eroded by damp and mildew for more than 300 years in Hongcun village, one of the World Heritage sites in China. The restoration followed the rule of repairing old as old before. The cladding made from the copolymerized polyfluorosilicone acrylate resin, which mainly contained the chain fragments of dodecafluoroheptyl methacrylate and 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate, permeated through the surface of old brick with an average depth of 14.5 mm in this case study, and provided an ultrathin and efficient covering of the microstructure of the shallow surface layer of old bricks and resulted excellent water-proof, moisture-proof, mildew-proof and long-lasting weather resistance effects. The water contact angle of the treated surface of the old bricks reached 133°, the water absorption of treated bricks was reduced from 16.1 wt% to 2.8 wt% after soaking in water for 24 h.

Energy systems modeling and assessment of the efficiency of quality management systems in high-rise construction

Construction reorganization, as a type of construction of high-rise buildings, is a part of a basic reorganization cycle. Features of renovation of built-up areas and issues of energy modeling are considered. The experience of assessing the efficiency of quality management systems for the organizational structures of construction management and common approaches to solving this issue are currently insufficient. Loft style methodology is used: the integrated performance indicator of organizational and technological operational reliability (OTOR) in high-rise construction. The possibilities of the construction method using 3D printing technology are considered. Comparative analysis of cost indicators for the construction of walls made of concrete blocks with plaster, brick cladding and ApisCor technology is made. These circumstances allow formulating the scientific task of the study. On the basis of the well-known BIM technology for information modeling of objects, a bank (information base) of standard implementation plans (IP) is created, from which the most rational IP for this type of work is selected using the criteria research method based on modified genetic algorithms (GA). The issues of choosing a method of construction work by the totality of implementation plans of construction and installation works are considered.

Resilience of Canadian homes and small buildings to the effects of climate change - Risk of deterioration due to condensation within wall assemblies

The objective of this study was to assess the potential effects of climate change on the moisture performance and durability of typical Canadian wood-frame walls using hygrothermal simulations, with a particular attention to the risk of condensation. To reduce the risk of condensation, the National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) recommends a maximum air leakage rate of 0.10L/sm2 at 75 Pa in buildings with interior relative humidity not greater than 55%. This leakage rate was evaluated in five cities across Canada for a wood-frame wall having brick cladding, with and without outdoor insulation and both walls meeting the minimum insulation requirements given in NBCC. It is found that the risk of condensation will be reduced in the future in all 5 cities analysed. The reduction in the risk of condensation is slightly higher for the wall with no exterior insulation than for the wall with exterior insulation. This reduction in the risk of condensation means that the limit of 0.10L/(sm2) for building having a warm side relative humidity of less than 55% may be reconsidered in the future. There may however be some risks associated with the increase in rain in some cities.

THE ANALYSIS OF DEFECTS AND REPAIR METHODS OF THE FRONT LAYER OF BRICKWORK OF MULTILAYER WALLS ON THE EXAMPLE OF A RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN PERM

The article discusses the problem of defects in the front layer of brickwork of multilayer walls. At many facilities constructed using the technology of laminated masonry with brick facing, after several years of operation, defects such as vertical cracks in the masonry face layer and destruction of the bricks of the face layer begin to appear. These defects violate the aesthetic appearance of the building, reduce the thermal characteristics of the external walls, and, in some cases, can lead to the collapse of certain sections of the brick cladding layer. This problem is considered on the example of a 10-storey residential building with external multilayer walls, located in Perm. The building was commissioned in 2005, but already in 2010, many defects of the front layer of masonry were discovered. The article provides data obtained during surveys carried out in 2010 and 2019. The main defects of the external masonry verst are described, among which one can distinguish the destruction of the masonry face layer, vertical cracks, the absence of stitching along the supporting corner of the masonry, and the absence of expansion joints. The main causes of damage are associated with numerous deviations from the project. The results of calculating the outer verst of brickwork for eccentric compression are presented. As measures aimed at eliminating defects, the article describes possible methods of repairing the face masonry: the installation of vertical and horizontal expansion joints, longitudinal reinforcement and anchoring with BIT rods to prevent the development of vertical cracks and destruction of the masonry.

Moisture potental theory application for modelling of enclosing structure unsteady-state moisture regime

Introduction. Known calculation methods for enclosing structure unsteady-state moisture regime proposed by K.F. Fokin, are examined. The first one describes moisture transfer in a sorption zone, and another allows calculation in oversorption zone also. “Thermodynamic moisture potential” of enclosing structure materials introduced by V.N. Bogoslovsky is described. Moisture potential F developed by V.G. Gagarin and V.V. Kozlov is shown. The moisture potential F allows describing water vapor and liquid moisture movement in material in a consistent way. The scientific novelty of the study is the development of calculation method based on moisture potential F. Practical relevance of the study is the possibility to obtain performance humidity values of enclosing structure materials by means of calculations for engineering practice. Materials and methods. A moisture transfer equation is derived on the basis of process physical interpretation, A mathematical model, consisting of heat conductivity equation, derived moisture transfer equation, spatial-time domain, boundary and initial conditions, is formulated. Moisture potential in single-layer and multilayer enclosing structures is determined using finite difference method. Results. Calculations for four types of enclosing structures are made on the basis of the proposed mathematical model: single-layer aerated concrete wall; a wall made of aerated concrete masonry base and clay brick cladding; a wall made of aerated concrete masonry base and mineral wool insulation with thin plaster layer; a wall made of aerated concrete masonry base and expanded polystyrene insulation with thin plaster layer. Conclusions. Calculated performance humidity values of enclosing structure materials were lower than values stated in regulatory documents. The presented results allow to define building heat loss definition and heating system design more accurately. Specification data on maximum wetting plane position obtained earlier were proved within the framework of the developed theory: in enclosing structures with aerated concrete base and mineral wool insulation maximum moisture content is located at the joint of plaster and insulation layers; in enclosing structures with aerated concrete base and expanded polystyrene insulation maximum moisture content is located in the insulation layer. Acknowledgements. Authors are deeply indebted to V.V. Kozlov, PhD in Technical Sciences, and V.K. Akhmetov, Doctor of Engineering Science, Professor, for discussion and useful comment in the course of study.

Evaluation of environmental sustainability threshold of “humid” and “dry” building systems, for reduction of embodied carbon (CO2)

The New Italian Procurement Code (Legislative Decree No. 50/2016), in compliance with the EU directives 26/02/2014, has introduced, among other things, the possibility of obtaining awards, during the awarding of the contract , in terms of reducing the estimated energy impact in the life cycle of the work. The objective of this study was to direct architectural design towards conscious choices that are compatible with environmental legislation. The study, therefore, aimed to analyze the characteristics of the most widespread (wet and dry) construction systems, in order to determine environmental sustainability thresholds referring to each of the four systems hypothesized for the development of the model. The simulated cases for the definition of the model refer to the following construction systems: M1 (structural system in load-bearing masonry); M2 (constructive system with frame structure and traditional brick cladding); M3 (constructive system with metallic bearing structure and dry stratified shell); M4 (constructive system with wooden supporting structure and dry stratified shell). The results indicated design scenarios aimed at using constructive systems that present advantages in terms of disassembly, recovery and reuse of the various components; in addition to the attitude of such systems, to be resilient, or to be able to be adapted and transformed during the life cycle of the building organism.

Assessment of enclosing structure moisture regime using moisture potential theory

The paper describes principal development directions of mathematical models of enclosing structure moisture regime. Benefits of mathematical models based on moisture potential theory are demonstrated. Moisture regime calculation by means of moisture potential, taking liquid and vapor moisture transfer into consideration, and using discrete-continual approach is proposed. New formulas for single-layer and multi-layer enclosing structures allowing for numerical analytic determination of moisture potential value in any enclosing structure section, at any moment of time, under continuous control of temperature distribution, have been derived. Moisture distribution has been studied for a number of enclosing structures using different methods of moisture potential theory: unsteady-state method, quasi-stationary method, the proposed discrete-continual method. Moisture regime has been determined for single-layer enclosing structure with ceramic brick basement and lime brick cladding in Moscow. It is shown that the greatest moisture value is achieved in enclosing structure calculation by means of steady-state method. Unsteady-state method gives more accurate moisture distribution. The proposed discrete-continual method gives quantitative and qualitative result of moisture distribution similar to results obtained by unsteady-state method. The benefit of discrete-continual method is a distribution obtained analytically, which allows to use solution results without numerical method application.

Technology of repairing brick masonry cladding of multi-layer external walls using helical repair anchors

As a result of mass construction of residential multi-storey buildings with non-bearing multi-layer walls and brick masonry cladding, during recent 10 years a number of drawbacks were found in design solutions leading to structural failure already at the initial stage of operation. Relevance of this problem is caused by poor reparability of multi-layer wall structures without removing the external brick cladding. The paper describes engineering solutions developed including authors’ efforts for repairing such walls without removing the cladding layers.

Infrared Imaging as a Means of Analyzing and Improving Energy Efficiency of Building Envelopes: The case of a LEED Gold Building

Today many designers claim that they are engineering green or LEED certified buildings. LEED is an evaluation system that rates how sensitive buildings are to the environment and the objective of LEED is to reduce emissions through development of highly efficient mechanical systems, designing of durable and efficient wall systems and by providing additional thickness to insulation. Unfortunately currently there are many cases where these wall systems and insulations are supported by thin steel studs, which are highly conductive of energy and are 400 times more conductive than wood.The aim of this paper is to investigate the use of thermal bridging in a LEED certified building. Thermal bridging is a major source of heat loss through studs and wall systems in many buildings worldwide. The investigated building is Gold certified building built in 2011 located in Toronto, Canada. The exterior walls consist of a copper and brick cladding and steel studs. Using thermal imaging, as a non-destructive testing method, this research investigates and identifies the location of thermal bridging. This study recommends how to integrate infrared imaging into the LEED certification process and how to improve the future design of efficient wall systems.

Discussion of “Learning from Failure of a Long Curved Veneer Wall: Structural Analysis and Repair” by Paulo B. Lourenço and Pedro Medeiros

Discussion of “Learning from Failure of a Long Curved Veneer Wall: Structural Analysis and Repair” by Paulo B. Lourenço and Pedro Medeiros