Mosquito Breeding Sites Research Articles

Prevalence and Phenotypic Identification of Mosquitoes Species within the University of Maiduguri Community, Maiduguri, Northeast Nigeria

Mosquitoes, characterized by their slender bodies, long legs, prominent eyes, and narrow wings adorned with fringe-bearing scales, play a vital role in public health as disease vectors. The prevalence of mosquitoes in an environment is influenced by a complex interplay of breeding conditions and environmental factors. This study, conducted from February to August 2019, aimed to assess the prevalence and distribution of mosquito genera in the University of Maiduguri area. A total of 903 mosquito specimens were collected using trapping methods, and morphological identification was performed based on specific characteristics. The indoor resting adults were categorized into three main genera based on morphological characteristics: Anopheles (546 individuals, 60.5%), Culex (312 individuals, 34.6%), and Aedes (45 individuals, 4.98 Habitat sampling, conducted using dippers and pipettes, aimed to identify mosquito breeding sites in five categories: containers, stagnant pools, domestic run-offs, gutters, and tree-holes/leaf axils. The study documented the presence of mosquitoes throughout the year, highlighting the persistence of these vectors in the area. Analysis of mosquito species composition revealed Anopheles as the most prevalent genus (Male=199, Female=347), followed by Culex (Male=192, Female=120), and Aedes (Male=22, Female=23), with Aedes being the least abundant. Statistical analysis indicated a significant difference (p≥0.05) between Anopheles and the other two genera, suggesting that the University of Maiduguri offers favorable conditions for the breeding of Anopheles mosquitoes. Contributing factors to this observation include a rising human population, dense plant vegetation influencing humidity, and inadequately managed sewage drainage, fostering mosquito proliferation. The study emphasizes the critical need for ongoing monitoring and effective vector control measures in the University of Maiduguri area to mitigate the public health risks linked to mosquito-borne diseases.

Perceived mosquito nuisance in residential areas, varying in distance to the floodplain

Mosquitoes, which are known as carriers of infectious pathogens, can induce public health threats. Moreover, high numbers of host-seeking nuisance mosquitoes in residential areas could lower life quality. In this study, we analysed how the mosquito nuisance perception of residents differed in four residential areas in Germany. Residential areas varied in distance to the nearest floodplain and mosquito breeding sites within this floodplain. We then surveyed residents in these areas and recorded adult mosquito field data with one mosquito trap per area. Nuisance perception of residents intensified in the studied area closest to the floodplain, while in the residential area at the greatest distance to the floodplain perception was low. The highest abundance ofAedes spp. was collected in the trap closest to the floodplain. We discussed the reactions of residents to the presence of specificAedes spp. species andCulex pipiens complex and how the distance to the floodplain could shape mosquito species composition. In conclusion, we assumed that residents might respond to the mosquito species-specific biting and host-seeking behaviours. Consequently, nuisance perception of the residents might change according to the distance between the floodplain and residential area and mosquito species present in the residential areas.

Evaluation of the Public Perception Regarding Malaria during Pregnancy among Expectant Mothers at Bitereko Health Center III in Mitooma District

The study aimed to evaluate how pregnant mothers at Bitereko Health Center III in Mitooma district perceive malaria during pregnancy and propose preventive interventions. Employing a descriptive cross-sectional design encompassing qualitative and quantitative methods, the research involved 100 participants from the health center. Data analysis utilized Microsoft Excel and SPSS software. Results indicated that 80% of pregnant women were knowledgeable about malaria prevention, including the use of insecticide-treated nets and environmental measures like clearing bushes and stagnant water. However, 20% lacked awareness regarding preventive measures. Identified predisposing risk factors for malaria during pregnancy encompassed poor nutrition, poverty hindering access to balanced diets, unsanitary conditions fostering mosquito breeding sites, and inadequate antenatal care. The study found significant associations between age, occupation, mental state, and education level with knowledge and perception of malaria in pregnancy. Recommendations included government-led health education during antenatal care focusing on malaria causes, prevention, and management of associated complications. Regular medical check-ups before and after delivery were encouraged, along with the consistent use of mosquito nets and other preventive measures against malaria. Keywords: Malaria in pregnancy, Insecticide-treated mosquito nets, Pregnant mothers, Mosquito, antenatal care.

Awareness on dengue haemorrhagic fever prevention in Insein township, Yangon region, Myanmar

Background: Dengue is an epidemic-prone, vector-borne communicable disease found all over the world. Effective prevention and control of Dengue requires vector control and interrupting human-vector contact. Vector control methods can only be effective with community awareness and engagement regarding preventing dengue haemorrhagic fever (DHF). This study aimed to assess the awareness of DHF prevention in an urban township in Yangon, Myanmar. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 218 participants in an urban slum in Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar, from July 2019 to August 2019. The knowledge level of DHF prevention was assessed using a structured questionnaire with face-to-face interviews. Results: Female respondents accounted for (n=148, 67.9%), and the average age of the respondents was 40.67 years (SD±13.25). The present study indicates that (n=176, 80.7%) had a good knowledge of DHF prevention. Most participants knew that mosquito biting is the cause of DHF, the signs and symptoms of DHF, and individual preventive activities of DHF. The participants (n=129, 59.2%) correctly identified clean water as mosquito breeding sites and a quarter of the respondents (n=56, 25.7%) provided inaccurate information about Aedes mosquitos as causal vectors of dengue fever. Some respondents (n=27, 12.3%) provided incorrect responses about the transmission of the daytime biting habit of the Aedes mosquito. Conclusions: The participants had good levels of knowledge, but insufficient knowledge and preventive practices of DHF were noted. Health promotion programs should focus more on correcting incorrect DHF knowledge and improving prevention strategies to enhance vector control and personal protection within the community.

Dengue Fever in India - A Review

Dengue fever is generally a mosquito borne viral infection which is transmitted from female Aedes Aegypti mosquito to human or infected human to mosquito, this virus is classified into five serotypes. Presenting features may range from asymptomatic to symptomatic (High grade fever, vomiting, hemorrhage, joint pain, headache ..etc.) Early and accurate diagnosis is critical to reduce mortality. Hematological tests includes RBC count, WBC count and Platelet count. We can protect ourselves from mosquito bites by using mosquito nets treated with Permethrin and getting rid of mosquito breeding sites. It is important to see a doctor when the symptoms become severe. Keywords: ,,, ,

Risk factors of malaria transmission in mining workers in Muara Enim, South Sumatra, Indonesia

Eliminating malaria by 2030 is stated as goal three in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, malaria still remains a significant public health problem. This study aims to identify the factors determining malaria transmission in artisanal or small-scale miner (ASM) communities in three villages: Tanjung Agung, Tanjung Lalang, and Penyandingan, located in the Tanjung Enim District, Muara Enim, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Researchers conducted a cross-sectional study involving 92 participants from the study area. They used a logistic regression model to investigate the risk factors related to malaria occurrence. The multivariable analysis revealed that age (Adjusted Prevalence Ratio (APR) = 7.989 with 95% CI 1.724–37.002) and mosquito breeding (APR = 7.685 with 95% CI 1.502–39.309) were risk factors for malaria. On the other hand, higher education (APR = 0.104 with 95% CI 0.027–0.403), the use of mosquito repellent (APR = 0.138 with 95% CI 0.035–0.549), and the condition of house walls (APR = 0.145 with 95% CI 0.0414–0.511) were identified as protective factors. The current study highlights age and mosquito breeding sites as risk factors for malaria. Additionally, higher education, insect repellent use, and the condition of house walls are protective factors against malaria. Therefore, reducing risk factors and increasing protective measures through effective communication, information, and education are highly recommended to eliminate malaria in mining areas.

Environmental determinants and risk behaviour in the case of indigenous malaria in Muara Enim Regency, Indonesia: A case-control design.

Malaria is a significant public health concern in Indonesia. Muara Enim Regency is one of the districts in South Sumatra with the most important number of indigenous malaria cases in the last three years (2018-2020). Therefore, this study aimed to identify determinants of indigenous malaria in the Muara Enim Regency. This study was designed as a case-control study. A stratified random sample in 2018, 2019, and 2020 was used at the Primary Health Centres (PHCs) areas of Tanjung Enim and Tanjung Agung. The sample included 49 cases and 49 controls. Indigenous malaria determinants were discovered using both bivariable and multivariable logistic regression models. The multivariable logistic regression model results show that mosquito repellent reduces malaria risk by 71% (AOR = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.11-0.64). Besides, the presence of wire mesh on ventilation reduces the risk of malaria by 76% (AOR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.10-0.57), and the distance from mosquito breeding sites near hundred meters and fewer increases the risk of malaria by 3.88 fold (AOR = 3.88; 95% CI: 1.67-8.97). Multivariable analysis revealed distance from mosquito breeding sites as a risk factor for malaria. Besides, the study shows that using insect repellent, wire netting in ventilation, eliminating mosquito breeding sites, mosquito repellent or protective clothing, and improving house conditions were protective factors for indigenous malaria. Therefore, preventive and promotional efforts are essential as the first step toward malaria elimination at the study site, including avoiding direct contact between residents and vectors near mosquito breeding sites.

Profiles of bacterial communities and environmental factors associated with proliferation of malaria vector mosquitoes within the Kenyan Coast.

Since Anopheles mosquitoes which transmit and maintain the malaria parasite breed in the outdoor environment, there is an urgent need to manage these mosquito breeding sites. In order to elaborate more on the ecological landscape of mosquito breeding sites, the bacterial community structure and their interactions with physicochemical factors in mosquito larval habitats was characterised in Kwale County (Kenya), where malaria is endemic. The physical characteristics and water physicochemical parameters of the habitats were determined and recorded. Water samples were also collected from the identified sites for total metagenomic DNA extraction in order to characterise the bacterial communities within the breeding sites. Sites where mosquito larvae were found were described as positive and those without mosquito larvae as negative. Electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, salinity and ammonia were lower in the rainy season than in the dry season, which also coincided with a high proportion of positive sites. Pseudomonadota was the most common phyla recovered in all samples followed by Bacteroidota and then Actinomycetota. The presence or absence of mosquito larvae in a potential proliferation site was not related to the bacterial community structure in the sampled sites, but was positively correlated with bacterial richness and evenness. Generally, the presence of Anopheles mosquito larvae was found to be positively correlated with rainy season, bacterial richness and evenness, and negatively correlated with electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, salinity and ammonia. The findings of this study have implications for predicting the potential of environmental water samples to become mosquito proliferation sites.

Dengue Fever: Etiology, Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment

Dengue fever (break-bone fever) is a viral disease transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. It is caused by the Dengue virus, which is a single positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family. Dengue fever is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas and is a significant public health concern in many countries, including`g Nigeria. The disease is characterized by symptoms such as high fever, headache, body aches, nausea, vomiting, swollen glands, and rash. In severe cases, dengue fever can lead to complications such as bleeding, organ impairment, and dengue shock syndrome. Diagnosing dengue fever can be challenging, especially in areas where it is endemic. In endemic locations, diagnosis is often made clinically based on the patient's reported symptoms and a physical examination. Tourniquet testing, which involves applying a blood pressure cuff and counting any petechial hemorrhages, can help in the diagnosis. Laboratory methods, including full blood count, cell culture, nucleic acid identification (PCR), and serology, can be used to confirm the diagnosis. Preventing dengue fever involves controlling the mosquito vector and protecting oneself from mosquito bites. Measures such as eliminating mosquito breeding sites, using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and using bed nets can help prevent mosquito bites. Vaccination against dengue is also available, with the Dengvaxia vaccine being used in some countries. There is no specific antiviral treatment for dengue fever. Management focuses on supportive care, maintaining a healthy fluid balance, and relieving symptoms such as fever and pain. Severe cases may require hospitalization and intensive medical care. In Nigeria, dengue fever is often misdiagnosed or overlooked due to similarities with other febrile illnesses like malaria. This can lead to underreporting and inadequate management of dengue cases. Increasing awareness among healthcare professionals and the general population is crucial for early detection and appropriate management of dengue fever in Nigeria. In conclusion dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes, primarily Aedes species. It is a significant global health concern, including in Nigeria. Early diagnosis, prevention measures, and supportive care are essential in managing dengue fever and reducing its impact on public health. This review is aimed at discussing the current issues of Dengue fever with focus on Nigeria.

Malaria surveillance, outbreak investigation, response and its determinant factors in Waghemra Zone, Northeast Ethiopia: unmatched case–control study

Malaria is a major global public health concern, with around half of the world's population at risk of infection. It is one of the most common epidemic-prone diseases, resulting in on-going epidemics and significant public health problems. On September 12, 2022, Waghemra Zone malaria monitoring data revealed that the district was suffering an unusually high number of malaria cases. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of malaria outbreaks and investigate contracting factors in Waghemra Zone, Northeast Ethiopia. A community-based case–control study with a 1:1 ratio was employed at Waghemra Zone from September 14 to November 27, 2022. A total of 260 individuals (130 cases and 130 controls) were included in the study. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. Malaria cases were confirmed by either microscopy or malaria rapid diagnostic tests. The magnitude of the outbreak was described by place, person, and time. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify malaria risk factors. A total of 13,136 confirmed cases of malaria were detected in the Waghemra zone, with an overall attack rate of 26.5 per 1000 and slide positivity rate was 43.0%. The predominant species was Plasmodium falciparum accounting for 66.1%. Children under five years old (AOR = 5.1; 95% CI 2.6–23.0), the presence of artificial water-holding bodies (AOR: 2.7; 95% CI 1.340–5.420), intermittent rivers closer to the living house (AOR = 4.9; 95% CI 2.51–9.62), sleeping outside a home (AOR = 4.9; 95% CI 2.51–9.62), and a lack of knowledge about malaria transmission and prevention (AOR: 9.7; 95% CI 4.459–20.930) were factors associated with malaria contraction. The overall attack rate for malaria during this outbreak was high. Children less than five years, the presence of mosquito breeding sites, staying outdoors overnight, and a lack of knowledge on malaria transmission and prevention were predictors of malaria. Early management of local vector breeding places, as well as adequate health education on malaria transmission and prevention methods, should be provided to the community to prevent such outbreaks in the future.

Toward improved surveillance of Aedes aegypti breeding grounds through artificially augmented data

The Aedes aegypti mosquito transmits several diseases, including dengue, zika, and chikungunya. To prevent these diseases, identifying and removing mosquito breeding sites is essential, but it is a time-consuming and labor-intensive task. To improve efficiency, computer vision and machine learning can be used to detect potential breeding grounds automatically. In this context, we explore the use of data augmentation strategies including random scaling, rotation, as well as color and brightness adjustments for improving the automatic detection of potential Aedes aegypti breeding grounds using videos acquired by a drone. The faster region-based convolutional neural network (Faster R-CNN) and the you only look once (YOLO) v5 object detectors are used on a database of aerial videos containing breeding-related objects. When employing the data augmentation, tire-detection results show F1 scores of 0.79 and 0.81 for the Faster R-CNN and YOLOv5 networks, respectively, surpassing current state-of-the-art values. The detection performance of the algorithms increased by up to 14.1%, which is a significant improvement. These results indicate that artificial data augmentation reduces overfitting, improving the models’ robustness. The developed system can be employed to help health agencies in locating potential Aedes aegypti outbreaks more efficiently.

Mapping Malaria Vector Habitats in West Africa: Drone Imagery and Deep Learning Analysis for Targeted Vector Surveillance.

Disease control programs are needed to identify the breeding sites of mosquitoes, which transmit malaria and other diseases, in order to target interventions and identify environmental risk factors. The increasing availability of very-high-resolution drone data provides new opportunities to find and characterize these vector breeding sites. Within this study, drone images from two malaria-endemic regions in Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire were assembled and labeled using open-source tools. We developed and applied a workflow using region-of-interest-based and deep learning methods to identify land cover types associated with vector breeding sites from very-high-resolution natural color imagery. Analysis methods were assessed using cross-validation and achieved maximum Dice coefficients of 0.68 and 0.75 for vegetated and non-vegetated water bodies, respectively. This classifier consistently identified the presence of other land cover types associated with the breeding sites, obtaining Dice coefficients of 0.88 for tillage and crops, 0.87 for buildings and 0.71 for roads. This study establishes a framework for developing deep learning approaches to identify vector breeding sites and highlights the need to evaluate how results will be used by control programs.

Community Participation Factors in Implementing Dengue Fever Symptoms Prevention Program

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever is one of the most common health problems in society that causes various health problems. This disease is caused by the bite of the Aedes Aegypti mosquito which transmits the dengue virus. Deli Serdang Regency is the district with the highest Dengue Haemoragic Fever (DHF) coverage with a coverage of 1,336 cases. The highest coverage was in Tanjung Morawa sub-district with 154 cases, as well as making Tanjung Morawa Health Center the highest DHF coverage with 92 cases. This think about points to decide the factors that influence community participation in the implementation of the Dengue Fever prevention program at Tanjung Morawa Community Health Center, Deli Serdang Regency. This investigate may be a quantitative explanatory overview investigate with a cross sectional design. The sample used was 270 people with the sampling technique using Proportional Random Sampling. Data analysis used univariate and bivariate analysis. The results showed that the related variable was a source of information (p=0.027) with community participation in the implementation of DHF prevention. While knowledge (p=0.705), attitude (p=0.057), role of stakeholders (p=0.787) are variables that are not related to community participation in the implementation of DHF prevention. Suggestions for this research are that health workers at Tanjung Morawa Health Center can increase the positive reaction of the community to prevent DHF, by conducting home visits to provide clear education about DHF prevention programs, providing periodic larvae inspection visits and inviting every household to have One JUMANTIK every household to prevent and eradicate both mosquito breeding sites and the presence of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, provide information to the public in the form of counseling about 3Mplus, and how to prevent DHF, and urge the public to participate and report if any neighbors or families are infected with DHF.

Evaluating the Sublethal Effects of Origanum vulgare Essential Oil and Carvacrol on the Biological Characteristics of Culex pipiens biotype molestus (Diptera: Culicidae).

Culex pipiens is a mosquito species complex spread worldwide that poses a serious threat to human health as the primary vector of West Nile virus. Its control is mainly based on larvicidal applications with synthetic insecticides on mosquito breeding sites. However, the excessive use of synthetic larvicides may provoke mosquito resistance issues and negative side effects to the aquatic environment and human health. Plant-derived essential oils, including those from the Lamiaceae family, can be eco-friendly alternative larvicidal agents causing acute larval toxicity and/or growth inhibitory effects on the developmental stages of mosquitoes through different modes of action. In the current laboratory study, we evaluated the sublethal effects of carvacrol-rich oregano essential oil and pure carvacrol on Cx. pipiens biotype molestus, the autogenous member of the Cx. pipiens species complex, after the exposure of 3rd-4th instar larvae to LC50 concentrations. The short-term (24 h) larvicidal treatment with the sublethal concentrations of both tested materials exhibited an acute lethal effect on the exposed larvae as well as significant delayed mortality for surviving larvae and pupae. Larvicidal treatment with carvacrol reduced the longevity of the emerged males. In addition, the morphological abnormalities that were observed at the larval and pupal stage along with failed adult emergence indicate the potential growth inhibitory properties of the tested bioinsecticides. Our findings suggest that carvacrol and carvacrol-rich oregano oil are effective plant-based larvicides at doses lower than the acute lethal ones, thus promoting an environmentally friendly and more affordable perspective for their use against the WNV vector Cx. pipiens biotype molestus.

Digitally managed larviciding as a cost-effective intervention for urban malaria: operational lessons from a pilot in São Tomé and Príncipe guided by the Zzapp system

BackgroundOnce a mainstay of malaria elimination operations, larval source management (LSM)—namely, the treatment of mosquito breeding habitats–has been marginalized in Africa in favour of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). However, the development of new technologies, and mosquitoes' growing resistance to insecticides used in LLINs and IRS raise renewed interest in LSM.MethodsA digitally managed larviciding (DML) operation in three of the seven districts of São Tomé and Príncipe (STP) was launched by the Ministry of Health (MOH) and ZzappMalaria LTD. The operation was guided by the Zzapp system, consisting of a designated GPS-based mobile application and an online dashboard, which facilitates the detection, sampling and treatment of mosquito breeding sites. During the operation, quality assurance (QA) procedures and field management methods were developed and implemented.Results12,788 water bodies were located and treated a total of 128,864 times. The reduction impact on mosquito population and on malaria incidence was 74.90% and 52.5%, respectively. The overall cost per person protected (PPP) was US$ 0.86. The cost varied between areas: US$ 0.44 PPP in the urban area, and US$ 1.41 PPP in the rural area. The main cost drivers were labour, transportation and larvicide material.ConclusionDML can yield highly cost-effective results, especially in urban areas. Digital tools facilitate standardization of operations, implementation of QA procedures and monitoring of fieldworkers’ performance. Digitally generated spatial data also have the potential to assist integrated vector management (IVM) operations. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a larger sample is needed to further substantiate findings.

Observation and Simulation of Mosquito Breeding Site Water Temperature for Malaria Transmission at Kaita Local Governmet Township of Katsina State, Nigeria

Studies showed that transmission of malaria is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature. This work is aimed at finding the impact of mosquito's breeding site water temperature on mosquito's larva development time. An artificial mosquito's breeding habitat was created. The water temperature of the habitat was measured at an hourly interval, then it is averaged into daily time scale. Weather variables of the experimental site were inpu into the the energy balance model to simulate the breeding habit water temperature. The mosquito's larva development time was then predicted by inputting both the observed water and simulated water temperature into the vector borne disease community model (VECTRI) .The daily maximum, and minimum observed water temperatures were 27.9°C, 32.6°C and 21.7°C, respectively. The daily mean, maximum, and minimum simulated water temperatures were 29.8°C, 35.6°C, and 23.5°C respectively. These temperatures are within the temperature range that supports mosquito’s larva development. Mosquito's larva development was predicted using the VECTRI model. According to this study larva development reached completion in 7.1 days using the observed water temperature, 6.03 days using the simulated water temperature and 8.01days using the observed air temperature. This energy balance model is an improved water temperature scheme over the assumption that air temperature is equal to air temperature. This work shows the importance of water temperature and the value of degree day required for emergence of an adult mosquito in the simulation of aquatic stage development. Both the observed water and simulated water temperatures are higher than the on observed air temperature, thus air temperature cannot be used as the water temperature in the simulation of the mosquito’s larva development time. The finding of the work can be used as source toward mosquito's larval control through water temperature. It is however clear from the finding that could be as result of temperature due to shorter time predicted for mosquito's larval development.

Field larvicidal and pupicidal efficacy of the natural insecticide, oxymatrine against Culex species in Beni Suef Governorate, Egypt

Oxymatrine is a naturally derived bioinsecticide with an environmentally favorable toxicity profile. So the present study investigated its larvicidal and pupicidal efficacy on Culex species in laboratory, semi-field, and field conditions in Saft, Beni Suef Governorate, Egypt. The results revealed that oxymatrine showed pronounced toxicity against Culex pipiens L. immature stages after 1 h of exposure, with LC50 values (LC50 = 5.73, 8.74 and 16.44 ml/L) for the second larval instar, the fourth larval instar, and pupae, respectively. After 24 h of exposure, complete mortality of the larval and pupal stages was achieved under laboratory conditions. While the semi-field trials showed the mortality percentage of larval and pupal stages of three species of mosquito (C. pipiens L., C. theileri Theobald and C. perexiguus Theobald) increased at a concentration of 20 ml/L with increasing exposure periods of oxymatrine (1, 24, and 48 h). This concentration (20 ml/L) caused complete mortality of immature stages of three Culex species after 48 h. The results also revealed, oxymatrine (20 ml/L) caused higher toxicity against Culex immature stages in most tested breeding habitats (cement irrigation tanks, agricultural canals, and drains). The present study concluded that oxymatrine is a promising larvicide and pupicide that can be used in the treatment of mosquito breeding sites.

Cost–benefit analysis of remote sensing data types for mapping mosquito breeding sites

Cost–benefit analysis of remote sensing data types for mapping mosquito breeding sites

A mathematical and exploratory data analysis of malaria disease transmission through blood transfusion

Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease spread by an infected vector (infected female Anopheles mosquito) or through transfusion of plasmodium-infected blood to susceptible individuals. The disease burden has resulted in high global mortality, particularly among children under the age of five. Many intervention responses have been implemented to control malaria disease transmission, including blood screening, Long-Lasting Insecticide Bed Nets (LLIN), treatment with an anti-malaria drug, spraying chemicals/pesticides on mosquito breeding sites, and indoor residual spray, among others. As a result, the SIR (Susceptible—Infected—Recovered) model was developed to study the impact of various malaria control and mitigation strategies. The associated basic reproduction number and stability theory is used to investigate the stability analysis of the model equilibrium points. By constructing an appropriate Lyapunov function, the global stability of the malaria-free equilibrium is investigated. By determining the direction of bifurcation, the implicit function theorem is used to investigate the stability of the model endemic equilibrium. The model is fitted to malaria data from Benue State, Nigeria, using R and MATLAB. Estimates of parameters were made. Following that, an optimal control model is developed and analyzed using Pontryaging's Maximum Principle. The malaria-free equilibrium point is locally and globally stable if the basic reproduction number (R0) and the blood transfusion reproduction number (Rα) are both less or equal to unity. The study of the sensitive parameters of the model revealed that the transmission rate of malaria from mosquito-to-human (βmh), transmission rate from humans-to-mosquito (βhm), blood transfusion reproduction number (Rα) and recruitment rate of mosquitoes (bm) are all sensitive parameters capable of increasing the basic reproduction number (R0) thereby increasing the risk in spreading malaria disease. The result of the optimal control shows that five possible controls are effective in reducing the transmission of malaria. The study recommended the combination of five controls, followed by the combination of four and three controls is effective in mitigating malaria transmission. The result of the optimal simulation also revealed that for communities or areas where resources are scarce, the combination of Long Lasting Insecticide Treated Bednets (u2), Treatment (u3), and Indoor insecticide spray (u5) is recommended. Numerical simulations are performed to validate the model's analytical results.

Differentiating Stagnant Water from Wet Surface for Detecting Potential Mosquito Breeding Sites in Real Time

Objective: Mosquito breeding site detection is crucial due to the colorization of water. Most systems fail to identify different types of stagnant water; hence, accurate water identification is essential. This study aims to devise an approach that can help increase the accuracy of detecting and distinguishing stagnant water from that of other wet surfaces. Methods: This work has proposed a technique using anchor boxes to reduce misclassification for detecting stagnant water. The images were collected for different types of water. The dataset was manually created by labeling images. Findings: We evaluated the proposed approach’s results and discovered that changing the anchor size and increasing training iterations on the dataset reduced misclassification by 89.20%. Novelty: The proposed method improves accuracy by using suitable anchor boxes to distinguish the water body from the wet surface. Unlike existing systems that are only capable of detecting a particular type of water; the improved YOLO V3 detects wet surfaces and different types of stagnant water due to training on a real-time customized dataset. Keywords: Object detection; Stagnant water; Street-View images; Misclassification; Mosquito breeding site