Breadwinner Research Articles

Unraveling the Eunuch Myth: Men, Eunuchs, and the Multifaceted Nature of their Roles

The purpose behind this study is to examine the factors contributing to the prevalence of large number of eunuchs worldwide, with specifically focus on Pakistan. The Eunuchs are marginalized subcultural groups that include those who identified as genderqueer women. Their unique begging techniques, such as slapping their hollow hands together, are one of their strategies to divert others attention towards them. Data for the paper was gathered from 12 semi-structured interviews with Eunuch and three semi-structured interviews with Guru in three Dera locations: Taxila, Wah, and Hasanabdal. Their live experiences were also recorded from childhood to old age across a wide range of settings, such as family, school, Guru, Dera colleagues, the workplace, and encounters with the public. The findings showed that, despite the fact that some of the eunuchs that come out in the market may look or behave in a manner that is often associated with eunuchs, most of them are male, and some of them were even married. They adopt it for economic reasons; however, adopting an artificial female role has caused role conflict in their lives. Traditionally, at household level, a male is supposed to take care of the home, such as finances, and appear masculine, but adopting an artificial female role for the male body increases the complications at social and family levels. The men by the name of Bread Winner have been facing exploitation, pushing them to adopt a character that is culturally and socially forbidden in the Pakistani community.

Marital structure and domestic gender role practice: implications for subjective well-being of working mothers teaching in Nigerian primary schools

ABSTRACT The study examined the association of marital structure and domestic gender role practice, with the subjective well-being of working mothers in Nigeria. Marital structure was measured as the type of marriage and living arrangement with husband, while domestic gender role practice was assessed as breadwinning and house chore role practices. Using a sample of 1320 married female primary school teachers, the study determined the prevalence of impaired well-being, and marriage type, living arrangement, breadwinning, and house chore role practice as predictors of well-being. A questionnaire and the English mental health continuum short form were used to collect data. Using IBM SPSS software version 23, demographic data were analysed in frequencies and percentages. Binary logistic regression was used to test three null hypotheses at p < 0.05. Findings showed a 36.2% prevalence of 'not flourishing' mental well-being. Polygamy, living away from the husband, and having the sole responsibility of house chores were associated with poorer well-being. The breadwinning role was not a significant factor. In conclusion, polygamy, living apart, and practising traditionalism in house chore roles might have negative implications for the subjective well-being of Nigerian working mothers. Therefore, Nigerian society should further evaluate the gender role expectations of working mothers.

Iban Women Development and Empowerment: Role of Iban Women as Breadwinner in the Family

Dual-income families are growing in the new millennium due to high living costs. Nowadays, women also play the role of breadwinners in the family, being in the workforce or working part-time. Many Iban working women and full-time homemakers are involved in side-income activities to earn additional income for the family. It is often involved them performing several activities to earn additional income for their family. This study investigates the role of Iban women as breadwinners involved in side-income activities in Sarawak by identifying types of side-income activities and barriers to side-income activities, thus proposing relevant training or programs to support and encourage their involvement in side-income activities. The study employed a descriptive research design, and 325 Iban women participated in this survey. Based on the survey, there are three main side-income activities among respondents, i.e., farming, handicraft making, and business. However, there are three main barriers to conducting side-income activities, i.e., a need for knowledge and skills in specific fields, marketing and promotional problems, and financial constraints. Based on the problems, three suggestions have been proposed by a high percentage of respondents, i.e., marketing and promotional assistance, business and entrepreneurship courses, and financial assistance. The selection of appropriate training and programs is crucial as the training and program should be need-driven oriented because only some of the training or programs could fit the needs of Iban women. The side-income activities among Iban women benefit the family, develop Iban society, and encourage Iban women’s development and empowerment in Sarawak.

Analisis Struktur Sosial Ibu Rumah Tangga Dalam Strategi Peningkatan Kesejahteraan Keluarga

Abstract: The plantation sector has experienced good growth in terms of production, investment, exports, and so on, so that it has a large role for the Indonesian economy. It can not be separated from the work of its employees. At PTPN XII Kalitelepak Glenmore Plantation, there are many labor employees who work and live in the plantation area. Of the many labor employees who work on the Kalitelepak plantation, not a few women also work as sugar cane workers. A group of women who live in Afdeling Sumber Tempur include housewives who work to fulfill their family’s economy. The role of women in family life is dominant, they not only play the role of being the housekeeper and all activities in it, but also play the role of breadwinner for the family. The purpose of this research is to describe the role of women as housewives in supporting family welfare through improving the household economy. The method used is descriptive qualitative using a realist ethnographic approach, and is located in the Sumber Tempur Afdeling, Kalitelepak Hamlet, Tulungrejo Village, Glenmore district, Banyuwangi regency. Meanwhile, the informans in this study were a group of housewives who worked as garden laborers in Kalitelepak. Data collection was carried out by interview, observation, and documentation methods. The results of the study show that housewives decided to keep working not only to help their husbands increase income for housing on the plantation. Thus, causing them inevitably to carry out activities as garden laborers.

The politics of disaggregated family policy: The role of party ideology and women's political representation in governments

AbstractAlthough affluent democracies experienced family policy expansion, there are remarkable country differences. Whilst some countries focus on policies supporting the male breadwinner model such as family allowances, others prioritise gender equality supporting public childcare. We explain this variation by arguing for governments as key actors in parliamentary democracies and test two sets of explanations: party ideology and women's representation. Our error correction models covering 16 affluent parliamentary democracies between 1991 and 2015 reveal that non‐left rather than left parties matter for family policy. Secular centre and Christian‐Democratic parties promote father‐specific leave, whilst secular right parties reduce spending on childcare and family allowances as well as father‐specific leave. The share of female ministers is associated with higher childcare expenses, and instead of women's share, the gender of the family affairs minister affects father‐specific leave expansions.

Assessing Influence of HIV Status on Management outcomes of Drug Sensitive Pulmonary Tuberculosis in the Bo District of Southern Sierra Leone.

Purpose: Tuberculosis in Human immunodeficiency virus is a predictor of unfavourable outcome during the management of TB cases due to the synergy both bear in the patient. This study is to test the hypothesis that patient is more likely to be unfavourable in the co infected than the TB stand-alone patients with standard treatment in patients. The associated factors might not be exhaustive that leads to outcomes factored in the study.&#x0D; Methodology: The retrospective cohort study data of 1,947 patients admitted from 1st January 2020 to 1st January 2022 at TB treatment centres in Bo district of Sierra Leone was analysed using datatab software after data completeness was checked and cleaned. Both bi-variable and multi-variable logistics regression and other statistical methods were employed to assess the relationship between HIV+TB synergic as well as TB alone outcomes. Data was analysed based on 95% CI and p&lt;0.05.&#x0D; Findings: When an ANOVA was used to test for significance from zero, F=3.41, p = 0.002, R2 = 0.01. Regression coefficients for exits = 1.17 - 0.02., gender =-0.02, literacy = -0.1, family bread winner with TB= -0.02 and foods insecurity = +0.07. A point-biserial correlation was also computed to determine the relationship between HIV status and TB interms of outcome which showed a positive correlation between HIV status and exit code information, although no statistically significance (rpb = 0.04, n = 1987, p = .065).&#x0D; Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: Successful treatment outcome was high among HIV/TB co-infected as well as TB mono-infected should both be treated with standard treatments. Strengthening patient management in a collaborative approach and use of novel drugs as well as research will increase the survival rate of patients treated. With standard treatment and patient centered care the outcome of TB patient management will not be hinged on their HIV status. The adoption of this theory into policy in TB programmes will improve the success rate in TB management.

Master Narratives, Self-Simulation, and the Healing of the Self

AbstractInfiltrated consciousness occurs when a subject's sense of self comes to be strongly and negatively shaped by victimizing master narratives. Consider the stay-at-home dad who has internalized a harmful narrative of traditional masculinity and so feels ashamed because he is not the family's bread winner. One way master narratives infiltrate consciousness is through conditioning self-simulation by assigning a hierarchy of values to different social roles. Further, master narratives confine self-simulation by prescribing certain social roles to an individual and prohibiting others. One common suggestion for counteracting infiltrated consciousness is to transform it through membership in new communities with new master narratives. But how does such healing happen? This essay offers a response. Recent psychological research on constructivist theories of memory outlines a naturalistically plausible mechanism for self-simulation. I argue that this mechanism is implicated in transforming infiltrated consciousness. This clarifies features of our psychological architecture that make the alteration of self-concepts possible.

Women’s aversion to majors that (seemingly) require systemizing skills causes gendered field of study choice

Abstract This article examines whether gender differences in preferences for field of study characteristics can explain gendered major choice. Specifically, this study focuses on a broad range of subject characteristics that are often simultaneously present: systemizing skills required (math intensity, reasoning style, affinity for technical work tasks), future job characteristics corresponding with the male breadwinner model (materialism, work–family compatibility), and characteristics invoked by behavioural preferences (risky situations and a competitive environment). To disentangle these co-occurring characteristics and minimize the influence of other factors in the decision-making process (e.g. admission likelihood), this study uses a choice experiment incorporated in the Swiss panel study TREE. In it, a representative sample of high school students choose their preferred field of study from two artificial fields with varying characteristics. The results show the largest gender differences in preferences for characteristics related to reasoning style (abstract versus creative) and affinity for work tasks (technical versus social), and smaller differences for math intensity, competitive climate, and work–family compatibility, while there are no gender differences in preferences for materialistic characteristics (salary and prestige). Unexpectedly, the gender differences are primarily caused by female students’ preferences, while male students are neutral towards most characteristics.

The Distribution of Unpaid Domestic Work in Hungarian Stay-at-Home Father—Working-Mother Families

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the Hungarian stay-at-home father—working-mother families from a point of view of how the distribution of unpaid domestic work develops during the period when the father stays at home with his child(ren). It answers the question of what principles and implemented practices govern the division of household labour in these families. According to the perception of the traditional parental role, unpaid domestic work, such as family duties, routine housework, and care work are the responsibility of mothers, while fathers are responsible for the financial stability of the family. In addition to the once prevailing breadwinner father role, nowadays the egalitarian model is becoming increasingly prominent. In parallel, a new father type appears according to which a good father wants to be more involved in the everyday life of the child. An extreme case of this type of involvement is when the father stays at home with his child(ren) and becomes the primary caregiver, and the mother assumes the role of breadwinner. The ratio of such families is growing around the world, but we still know relatively little about them. Our gap-filling, qualitative research is based on semi-structured in-depth interviews with 31 Hungarian stay-at-home fathers supplemented by a short questionnaire with their partners. The data were analyzed by thematic analysis method. As a main conclusion we could identify two clearly distinguishable groups among the examined couples: families with a rather traditional approach, and families having more egalitarian values concerning gender roles. However, the findings suggest that all of these families can be characterised by egalitarian sharing practices of duties, and at the same time by undoing gender. The distribution of routine housework and care work is based on a time availability perspective, which does not specify any masculine or feminine family duty or work.

Spouses' division of labor and marital stability: Applying the multiple-equilibrium theory to cohort trends of divorce in East and West Germany

Objective: In comparing East and West Germany, we investigate task specialization and its association with marital stability twofold: (1) Has the association between women’s employment and divorce risk changed across marriage cohorts? (2) Are men’s levels of engagement in domestic tasks associated with divorce risk? Background: While older theories assumed that women’s employment destabilized marriages, newer theories suggest that men can re-stabilize marriages by changing their behavior and engaging in housework. Method: We analyze data from the SOEP using discrete-time event history models in a historical and a dyadic perspective. Results: Our results show that the associations between women's employment and the risk of divorce have been changing across marriage cohorts, and that this trend began earlier in East Germany. Husbands' relative contribution to division of housework is not found to stabilize marriages in East and West Germany, but we find differences between marriage cohorts in West Germany. Conclusion: Our findings confirm that the traditional male breadwinner model is no longer associated with a stable equilibrium in marriage in Germany. It appears that either the German society is still in the transitional stage, as men’s contributions to housework are shown to be irrelevant for marital stability; or that gender equality is not associated with the new stable equilibrium in marriages.

A continuum of caring masculinities: evidence from Khmer men’s childcare practices

ABSTRACT This article aims to contribute to the debate about the link between ‘hegemonic masculinity’ and childcare practices in conceptions of ‘caring masculinities’. It conceptualises ‘caring masculinities’ along a continuum that encompasses ‘less-caring’ and ‘more-caring’ practices at each extreme, both shaped by men's perceptions of their intersecting identities as husbands and fathers. This draws on the concept of ‘caring’ in feminist moral philosophy and on sociological approaches to ‘masculinity’ to analyse empirical evidence of Khmer men’s childcare practices in Cambodia. The development of a continuum of caring masculinity enables us to investigate the extent to which, and the way in which, men are engaged in ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ care in their childcare practices, alongside their breadwinning roles. The empirical data are based on qualitative, in-depth interviews with 26 young fathers and 26 young mothers who have at least one young child aged six or younger and who reside in either urban or rural settings in Cambodia.

Gender Disparity in Medical Field

Approximate total population of Pakistan in 2021 was 225 million, out of which 48.6% are female and 51.4% are males. But it is not reflected in Medical college’s admissions and almost 60 to 70% women opt for medical profession and it is creating disparity. Medical profession has become less lucrative for males just because of a lack of job opportunities available after doing MBBS and relatively there are more opportunities after commerce, accounts, engineering and social sciences. Therefore, boys are attracted towards these subjects instead. Females are more attracted towards medical profession because after an MBBS degree a girl can find more and good marriage proposals1. Secondly, she could be a helping hand for her husband after marriage in this era of inflation. Gender disparity is an ancient problem and way back in Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) era females born were buried alive but Islam gave huge respect and priority to females. Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) in his preaching directed us to render due respect to females. Unfortunately we are not following it in true letter and spirit. Female medical professionals often encounter a disparity in Pakistani healthcare system during their service. A recent study in a tertiary care hospital in Pakistan identified issues of gender bias faced by female surgeons/doctors throughout their careers in the form of lack of respect, barriers to recruitment and promotion, and differences in training in the operating room and other occasions. The majority of female surgeons/physicians believe that these experiences have a significant impact on their career choices, job satisfaction, and access to higher status. Female doctors are underestimated as leaders. For example, in one of the surgical units of a renowned institutes there was the only one female professor was working, even though 34.4% of her residents were female. In Pakistan, only 30% of Women Doctors continue their career2. Women are considered stay-at-home moms and are responsible for all household chores, while men are assigned the role of the sole breadwinner of the family. Ambitious and career-oriented women in Pakistan are usually discouraged and such women are not socialized. This traditional, overprotective mentality is also prevalent in the healthcare field3. Even the country's top residential programs fail to provide working mothers with basic facilities such as day care, maternity leave, maternity care during early birth period. As a result of these social pressures and the rigors of the workplace make it tough for females to balance their personal and professional lives, with most leaving their careers to meet society's definition of the “ideal housewife”. Moreover, if a woman who chooses to continue her professional career, these submissive roles affect her efficiency in the workplace and, as a result her professional skill are not superior to those of her peers3. Increasing the proportion of women in leadership positions is one of the most important steps in closing the gender gap in medical profession. Not only does this create a healthier and better working environment for other female doctors, but these female leaders also become role models for young female doctors and medical students. This encourages female physicians to pursue competitive medical fields such as general surgery, neurosurgery, and cardiac surgery and become more career-oriented4. In summary, large, evidence-based studies are essential to identify and recognize the challenges that women doctors face throughout their careers and in reaching top positions so that each issue can be adequately addressed. . There is a need to introduce relatively flexible staffing policies for health professionals, especially for working mothers, to address work-life balance issues. National organizations and organizations should match female medical students with mentors and icons who are not only a source of inspiration but also provide networking opportunities. Females are usually reluctant to report incidents of gender inequality because of stigmatization. Awareness-raising strategies are needed to put in place appropriate SOPs for a work environment that is more conducive and approachable for women health workers and provides equal leadership opportunities for all. Government of Pakistan is now making positive efforts to curb the gender inequality and one of the practical step is the creation of female ombudsman office to tackle workplace harassment cases. Other legislative measures are also in national assembly and senate of Pakistan. How to Cite This: Tipu SA. Gender Disparity in Medical Field. Isra Med J. 2022; 14(3): 93-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.55282/imj.ed61

Are Women Better Energy Managers in a Developing Country?

Energy Management at household level is multifaceted issue due to factorsinvolving gender, education and awareness to energy usage. This study wasconducted in Peshawar city, Pakistan which is capital city of the provinceand densely populated. This study identifies the role of women in energymanagement at household level keeping in view household’s characteristicsin an underdeveloped country. The key factors included were (1) educationand job status (2) characteristics of nuclear and joint family system (3)energy consumption pattern of the households and (4) awareness of energymanagement and its implementation amongst the females in the household.One-way ANOVA test shows that women spend more than three hours whileutilizing energy appliances. In addition, awareness of high billing cost perunit, electricity consumption during peak hours’ unit, idea of renewableenergy sources and their use cum awareness level was found to be extremelylow. The results show that the education of husband and wife is indistinguish-able and the females are the major decision makers in carrying the householdchores. Males are the sole bread winners of the house and majority of thefemales are housewives despite of attaining higher education. Despite thefact that women are aware of household energy management, there is still a need for full implementation and awareness among women in the household.Lastly, trend of nuclear family system is making pace in the Pakistan andenergy management and utility bills are handled independently. The resultscan be used for policy making in developing countries.

Does inequality prevail in treatment of fairer sex in orthopaedics?

From times immemorial, women has had the difficult road to travel, may be their values in societal position, their active participation and understanding and realisation of their voice in matters of legislation, not to say the least in day to day contribution still needs to be appreciated despite working full time24/7. When I was a resident in the seventies, I often used to wonder, why the Opd’s were full of womenfolk as compared to men in chronic ailments of musculoskeletal pains carrying a with them , a thick pad of opd papers with only written legible prescription was ctall (continue all). On the other hand, the numbers were higher for male gender in trauma and sports injuries. To attend the OPDs, probably was an outing for them, getting away from daily chores of unrecognised and unappreciated, housebound work of 24/7. The most research subjects were males than females and the surprising feature was absent of consent when it came to consent for surgery, as if their presence does not matter and their place needs to be at home alone. It was accepted that they are not the bread winners but only the homemakers and medical expenditure on them was not very fruitful. It was after the 1993 the National Institute of Health made a declaration to deliver equal high quality of care and effective management to all and not to make gender biased discrimination. As we crossed the twentieth century and went into the 21st century, a forward progressive thinking brought about sea of change, when women started working in offices, took up to education, excelled more than men in education and in financial matters , thereby becoming independent and therefore demanded equality of status. There are now ever increasing number of women not only doing Orthopaedics but also superspecialising in sub specialist and attracting female patients and thus competing with their male counterparts. So you no longer see the world” destined for men only “ operating today, because of the need felt to give equal opportunity to all without any bias and discrimination of social status and circumstances to attain their full potential. Nowadays you see more women readily agree to consent for surgery, since more and more educated young men and women tend to accompany their mother for being operated because they insure their parents for medical treatment and feel satisfied emotionally and morally as they are giving back to them to reciprocate their loved and care. But still in some developing and underdeveloped countries for want of insurance agencies and abilities, there opportunities of facilities of care are lacking and therefore the male counterpart still is preferred for surgery over female patient. The female patient has more ailments of osteoporosis, osteoarthrosis and musculoskeletal problems than the male counterparts and the need to be promptly treated, to keep the pillar and backbone of the family healthy and not disabled. In developed countries, many joint replacement registries show, increasing number of female patients getting operated for joint replacement surgery and even for sports related injuries, implying that the ratio is changing to the prevailing order earlier. This reversing trend is better for society as the female patient becomes multitasked and well respected needs to be equally cared for and given the importance.

Gender Roles and Relations in the Later Age: Perceptions and Practices of Older Couples in Dhaka City, Bangladesh

This article reveals the gendered impacts of ageing by examining the lived experience of older couples in Dhaka city. Based on an analysis of data collected through in-depth interviews, the findings reveal that the value of aged parents remains significant in the families of urban working couples. However, with advancing age and the breaking down of the traditional family system, older couples experience substantial changes in their gender roles and power status within the domestic sphere. Losing family breadwinner roles, lonely retired men suffer more from the feeling of powerlessness, whereas their wives keep on caregiving responsibilities. The altered life circumstances boost a sense of equality in some men, making them more caring and empathetic towards their wives. On the contrary, guided by traditional norms and values, several older men remain dominant and exercise control over their spouses as they did throughout their married life.

Who benefits from an adult worker model? Gender inequality in couples’ daily time use in Germany across time and social classes

This article investigates how mothers’ and fathers’ daily time use changed across social classes from 1990 to 2013 in Germany. In the 2000s, Germany’s adherence to the male breadwinner model was eroded by labor and family policy reforms typical of the adult worker model, which assumes individual self-sufficiency. The implications for gender and class inequality have been heatedly discussed. Drawing on the German Time Use Survey, I find that gender equality in the division of labor is greatest among full-time dual-earner couples with standard schedules. The prevalence of this pattern increased among the middle- and upper-class in historically conservative western Germany, but declined across classes in formerly socialist eastern Germany. In parallel, nonstandard work patterns and dual-joblessness gained in importance among lower-class couples, particularly in eastern Germany. I conclude that the adult worker model benefited mothers with access to standard full-time jobs but at the cost of greater class polarization.

Mental health between present issues and future expectations

Based on a 2020 survey of more than 4000 working-age women, we investigate the main determinants of mental distress during the COVID-19 first wave in Italy. We address the role of two groups of drivers: present issues (e.g., present working status) and expectations about the future (e.g., fear of losing the job). Our results show that expectations do play a crucial role on mental distress. Younger women and those lacking a high school degree are in most distress. even controlling for individual fixed effects, and contextual factors which account for potential dynamics in the labor market. We investigate how expectations interact with several individual dimension, as age, level of education, sector of employment, and individual gender norms. Expectations of future employment is still among the main driver, but respondents with higher stereotype show higher distress due to uncertainty about the future employment of the partner, suggesting that the prevalence of a traditional breadwinner model is a source of additional distress on this population.

Single fathers and work–family conflict in white- and blue-collar jobs

ABSTRACT Existing research points towards an overall intensification of parenting expectations including newer expectations for fathers’ involvement in caregiving. At the same time, the ideal worker norm persists, and employers continue to expect men’s full and uninterrupted work commitment. This article explores what these competing expectations attached to work and parenting mean for single fathers. To do so, the article draws on 30 in-depth interviews with a sample of working single fathers with primary caregiving responsibility in the United States and differentiates between those with white- and blue-collar jobs. The study finds that both white- and blue-collar single fathers prioritize caregiving and resist the ideal worker norm and, as a result, experience work–family conflict. Resolving this conflict becomes single fathers’ individual responsibility, and the resources to resolve it are primarily available to white-collar men in the form of understanding supervisors and access to workplace flexibility. Blue-collar single fathers need to be more creative and resourceful in reconciling their caregiving and breadwinning roles. Inability to resolve work–family conflict can lead to job penalties such as reduced income and/or a job loss, which are found across different job types.

Variation in the link between income position and union dissolution: an analysis of couples with and without a migrant background in Belgium

ABSTRACT Despite the fact that the size and diversity of migrant populations and their descendants in Europe have increased substantially throughout the past decades, income dynamics of union dissolution have not been studied among populations with a migrant background in the European context. Using data from the Belgian Social Security Registers from 1999–2013, we estimate discrete-time event-history models of union dissolution for couples of Belgian, Southern European, Moroccan and Turkish origin. The results indicate a weaker link between household income and union dissolution among couples with a Southern European and Turkish background. Whereas couples without a migrant background experience the lowest union dissolution risks when incomes are evenly distributed, the male breadwinner model does not raise union dissolution risks of couples with a migrant background. Welfare dependency has a positive association with union dissolution among all couples but the threshold at which it raises union dissolution risks is higher for couples with a Moroccan or Turkish background.

The end of the golden age: on growing challenges for male workers and their partners to secure a family income

AbstractThanks to the male breadwinner model with wages sufficient to support a family, working-class families used to be financially secure. The transformation towards the adult worker model (AWM) saw an accumulation of adverse employment characteristics—especially among manual and non-manual routine occupations—and a rise in poverty risks. However, there is a lack of research that combines these strands. I ask to what extent male Western German workers and their partners’ ability to secure labour earnings that support a family has changed, and to what degree this was hampered by various adverse employment characteristics. Focusing on service and production workers with cohabiting partners, I analyse whether their individual and combined labour income is sufficient to support a family. Performing descriptive trend analysis and linear probability models with German Socio-Economic Panel data for 1985–2013, I compare class effects of four periods. I find that since the end of the 1990s, male service and production workers increasingly struggle to secure a family income—mainly driven by low wages and low work intensity, while partners’ labour market participation has gained relevance. The transformation towards the AWM coincided with a devaluation of the most privileged group among workers and thus the working class as a whole.