Breadmaking Performance Research Articles

Effects of cereal flour types and sourdough on dough physicochemical properties and steamed bread quality.

Coarse cereals have been promoted for their health benefits, and sourdough is used to improve their steamed bread sensory acceptance. However, grains vary in dough physiochemical properties and steamed bread-making performance. This study investigated the effects of yeast and sourdough fermentation on the biochemical, textural, and flavor properties of dough and steamed bread of eight grain types. Results indicated that sourdough dough had a lower pH and higher total titrable acidity compared with yeast group. The texture of sourdough-steamed bread was significantly improved with reduced hardness and enhanced springiness. Microstructure revealed that sourdough resulted in starch surface corrosion and less amylopectin recrystallization. Aldehydes, alcohols, and esters are more dominant in sourdough group than yeast group. Foxtail millet and sorghum steamed breads exhibited the highest performances in texture, flavor, and sensory evaluation. This could provide a theoretical basis for producing coarse cereal products with desirable quality.

Enhancing Gluten Network Formation and Bread-Making Performance of Wheat Flour Using Wheat Bran Aqueous Extract.

Wheat bran possesses diverse nutritional and functional properties. In this study, wheat bran aqueous extract (WBE) was produced and thoroughly characterized as a functional ingredient and improver for bakery application. The WBE contained 50.3% total carbohydrate, 24.5% protein, 13.0% ash, 6.7% soluble fiber, 2.9% insoluble fiber, and 0.5% β-glucan. Notably, adding 7.5% WBE significantly increased the bread-specific volume to 4.84 cm3/g, compared with the control of 4.18 cm3/g. Adding WBE also resulted in a remarkable improvement in dough properties. The WBE-enriched dough showed increased peak, setback, breakdown, and final viscosities, along with higher storage and loss modulus. Scanning electron microscopy analysis further revealed that the WBE promoted the aggregation of protein and starch within the dough. The extractable gliadin to glutenin ratio increased with 5 and 7.5% WBE additions, compared with the control and 2.5% WBE addition. WBE did not significantly alter the starch gelatinization temperature or dough extension properties. These findings demonstrate that the inclusion of WBE in wheat flour is a promising approach for producing high-quality bread that is enriched with dietary fiber and protein.

Physico-chemical characterisation of whole meal flours from three wild chickpea varieties and their technological performance in Gluten Free Bread

The present study investigated the physico-chemical characteristics of whole-meal flours from three wild chickpea varieties (white chickpea – WC, red rough chickpea – RRC, red smooth chickpea – RSC) compared to a modern chickpea variety (MC) and their bread-making performances in 30% (w/w flour) substituted GF breads. Wild chickpea flours showed the highest ash, total dietary fiber (TDF), and total antioxidant capacity (6.3%, 13.4%, and 9.5% increase for WC, RRC, and RSC flour compared to MC flour) values compared to MC sample, and red varieties (RRC- and RSC-samples) showed the highest total phenolic content (15.5% and 17.0% increase compared to MC flour). Significant differences were also found in protein content and techno-functional properties. Bread specific volume and crumb hardness were significantly affected by chickpea variety, with red varieties (RRC- and RSC-samples) revealing the lowest impact. 1H NMR proton molecular mobility significantly changed as a function of chickpea variety, and these differences might be associated to the different macroscopic bread quality. Overall, the tested wild chickpea flours revealed valuable chemical composition, and differed in the techno-functional and bread-making performances, with red varieties showing the most promising results to improve GF breads.

Comparing bread-making properties of white and whole wheat flours from 64 different genotypes: A correlation analysis

Quality attributes of wheat and its flour strongly influence the processability, end-product performance, and consumer acceptability of wheat-based products. The quality of whole wheat flour (WWF) has been estimated using white flour (WF) methodologies, which raised concerns due to the uncertain correlations between WF and WWF. Strong correlations were identified between the WF and WWF for protein content and flour water absorption (r = 0.98 and 0.71, respectively), pasting properties of peak and final viscosity (r = 0.85 and 0.70, respectively), and the optimum mixing time determined by Mixograph (r = 0.83). In contrast, the bread volumes and water retention capacity were weakly correlated for WWF versus WF (r = 0.48 and 0.28, respectively). There was a negative relationship between the peak value of WF and the hardness of the white bread (r = −0.58), while it was not present for the WWF bread. This comparative evaluation of the dough rheological properties and bread-making performance of WF and WWF from 64 wheat genotypes is valuable to breeding programs, food processors, and millers, ultimately enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of wheat-related industries.

A comparative study of magnetic field on the maximum ice crystal formation zone and whole freezing process for improving the frozen dough quality

Magnetic field individually applied on the maximum ice crystal formation zone (MMF) and the whole freezing process (WMF) was compared to improve the quality of multiple freezing-thawing treated dough. All treatments showed that the breadmaking performances of magnetic field-assisted freezing were better than the conventional freezing. Especially, the WMF-treated breads exhibited higher resilience and lower firmness than MMF-treated breads. WMF treatment made dough remained a continuous and compact gluten-starch matrix while the starches and glutens got separated in MMF-treated dough. It could keep the gluten macropolymer from freezing-induced depolymerization with the decreased free sulfhydryl by 7.09% and more ordered secondary structure. WMF had positive effects on the homogeneous water distribution and high water-binding ability in frozen dough where the freezable water decreased from 32.47% to 30.77%. This comparative study of different freezing stages provided new insights into the better application of magnetic field on frozen dough-based food.

A study of the milling process of Irish-grown peas: NIR spectroscopy, flour pasting properties and dough rheology

Peas contain valuable macronutrients, such as protein and dietary fibre, associated with health benefits. Blending pea flour (PF) with wheat flour (WT) can improve the nutritional profile of bakery products. In addition, the use of locally grown peas for food innovation activities can benefit the environment and the local economy. However, the pea milling process is of paramount importance and can affect the final flour quality. This study aims to evaluate the influence of different milling processes of Irish-grown peas on flour composition, spectral profile (Near Infrared - NIR), pasting properties and dough rheology. Three mills were used: roller (RM), hammer (HM) and cutting (CM) producing RM, HM and CM flours, respectively. A commercial strong wheat flour was used as the base flour. For producing doughs, wheat flour was blended with each pea flour at a 15:85 (pea: wheat). Flour composition, particle size, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), dough mixing properties, viscosity profile, gel texture, dough extensibility and rheology were assessed for the control, all pea flours and flour blends. The hammer mill produced the highest yield of pea flour (93.9 %). Near Infrared Spectroscopy reflected the same results for proximate composition, and the PCA and was able to discriminate the main differences between flour samples. SEM demonstrated that higher particle sizes obtained from the CM tended to have larger starch and protein matrix aggregates. Pea flour from the RM presented the highest viscosity profile and hardness, most likely due to the higher starch and lower total dietary fibre content. The lower pasting viscosity profile of pea flour obtained from CM is most likely due to a high level of damaged starch present in this flour. There were no significant differences found among WT and flour blends for gel hardness. This may imply that the incorporation of 15 % HM and CM flours perhaps will not impact the staling process of the final bread products. Further research is being undertaken to examine the influence of the pea milling process on bread-making performance.

Identification of traits underpinning good breadmaking performance of wheat grown with reduced nitrogen fertilisation.

Nitrogen fertiliser is the major input and cost for wheat production, being required to support the development of the canopy to maximise yield and for the synthesis of the gluten proteins that are necessary for breadmaking. Consequently, current high-yielding cultivars require the use of nitrogen fertilisation levels above the yield optimum to achieve the grain protein content needed for breadmaking. This study aimed to reduce this requirement by identifying traits that allow the use of lower levels of nitrogen fertiliser to produce wheat for breadmaking. A range of commercial wheat genotypes (cultivars) were grown in multiple field trials (six sites over 3 years) in the UK with optimal (200 kg Ha-1 ) and suboptimal (150 kg Ha-1 ) application of nitrogen. Bulked grain samples from four sites per year were milled and white flours were baked using three types of breadmaking process. This identified five cultivars that consistently exhibited good breadmaking quality when grown with the lower nitrogen application. Chemical and biochemical analyses showed that the five cultivars were characterised by exhibiting grain protein deviation (GPD) and high dough elasticity. It is possible to develop novel types of wheat that exhibit good breadmaking quality by selecting for GPD and high dough strength. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Sicilian Rivet Wheat Landraces: Grain Characteristics and Technological Quality of Flour and Bread.

In recent years, the growth of tetraploid Sicilian wheat landraces has been arousing increasing interest. In this study, eighteen local genotypes of Triticum turgidum subsp. turgidum, belonging to the groups 'Bufala', 'Ciciredda', 'Bivona' and 'Paola', and two cultivars of Triticum turgidum subsp. durum (the old variety 'Bidì', and a more recent variety 'Simeto') were assessed for the characteristics of the grain and bread-making performance of their flours and doughs, as well as the quality of the loaves. The grain of the twenty genotypes came from a field trial conducted during 2018-2019 in south-eastern Sicily. The main commercial features of the grain (thousand kernel weight and hectolitre weight), including the defects (starchy, black pointed and shrunken kernels), were determined. The wholemeal flours and doughs obtained from the grain of each genotype were evaluated for the main technological quality (physico-chemical and rheological characteristics), and processed into loaves, whose main quality indices (volume, height, weight, moisture and porosity) were assessed. The results from such analyses allowed the authors to evaluate the genotypes' bread-making suitability. In particular, for the grain characteristics, hectolitre weight varied from 68.23 ('Bufala Rossa Lunga 01') to 77.43 ('Bidì 03') kg/hL, passing through the typical values for common and durum wheat. Among the grain defects, the black point defect was absent in all the grain samples, except for that of 'Bufala Nera Corta 01' (2%). Dry gluten content varied from 6.22 to 10.23 g/100 g, and sedimentation test values were low or medium-low, with values ranging from 22 to 35 mL. Amylase activity was low and highly variable among the genotypes, with the maximum value observed for 'Bufala Rossa Corta b01' (509 s). The doughs evidenced a poor quality for bread making with alveograph values of W ranging from 12 to 145 (10-4 × Joule) and thus the volume of the loaves varied from 346.25 cm3 of 'Bivona' and 'Ciciredda' to 415.00 cm3 of 'Bufala Rossa Lunga'. A Tandem Cluster Analysis was conducted on a set of all the response variables. The Hierarchical Cluster Analysis was initially run. A five-cluster solution identified three clusters further segmented and two single branches. Overall, the study highlighted the possibility of using some of these landraces alone for the production of traditional breads locally appreciated or together with other ingredients for the production of crumbly baked goods such as substitutes for bread and biscuits.

Physical modification caused by acoustic cavitation improves rice flour bread-making performance

Acoustic cavitation has been shown to cause physical damage and partial starch depolymerization in ultrasound-treated flours. However, the promising effects of this modification on bread-making performance of gluten-free flour are still unexplored. Based on this hypothesis, sonicated rice flour (2–20 min) was used to replace 30% native flour in the control formulation of gluten-free bread. Breadmaking performance was characterized by doughs' pasting, thermal, and rheological properties, and physical quality of breads. Ultrasonication time presented a direct correlation with particle fragmentation. Doughs’ rheology presented reduced tan(δ)₁ values (up to −11%) and improved recovery after the application of stress (up to +14%), denoting an enhanced elastic behavior with respect to the control dough. Rheo-fermentative tests demonstrated that ultrasonication accelerated the generation of CO2 and its retention within the dough structure, as consequence of eased accessibility of yeast to simpler sugars after starch depolymerization. The small-size particles (∼10 μm) in ultrasonicated flours seem to have enhanced their Pickering emulsifying ability and led to breads with higher specific volumes (up to 24%), softer crumbs, and delayed hardening during storage. Ultrasonication, a low-cost technology, has been shown to significantly improve the fermentative and viscoelastic behavior of rice flour dough and its breadmaking performance.

Exploring the role of the liquid phase in dough made with sprouted wheat wholemeal in bread production

To unravel the effect of sprouted wheat wholemeal (SWW) on bread characteristics, baking performance of SWW and commercial white bread wheat flour (BWF) blends was investigated. The inclusion of soft or hard SWW increased the total monosaccharide and reducing sugar concentrations, α-amylase and proteolytic activity in dough liquor (DL) relative to what was found in DL obtained from dough prepared with only BWF or unsprouted wheat wholemeal (UWW). The apparent bulk viscosity and air-water interfacial rheological properties of DL were changed upon inclusion of UWW and SWW in the recipes, likely reflecting changes in the DL arabinoxylan and protein content, while the surface tension of dough liquor was not altered by inclusion of UWW or SWW. The interfacial elastic modulus correlated positively with the protein concentration of DL, while bread loaf volume was negatively correlated with DL protein concentration and air-water interfacial elastic and viscous moduli. DL bulk viscosity, conversely, had a more complex relation to bread loaf volume. Besides affecting the DL properties, sprouting also altered the gluten aggregation properties. More research is needed to identify the fine interplay between all these factors determining breadmaking performance.

Effect of bran particle size on rheology properties and baking quality of whole wheat flour from four different varieties

The potential health benefits of consuming whole grain foods are increasingly attracting customers’ interest. The effect of bran particle size on whole wheat flour (WWF) bread-making performance was investigated using four different varieties with protein levels of 9–15 g/100g. Five different bran particle size ranges from 590.5 to 159.7 μm were obtained using different milling methods. Mixolab tests revealed that white flour had a lower water absorption (56.2–59.2 g/100g) than the corresponding whole wheat flours (63.2–67.0 g/100g). Larger specific loaf volume was observed for white bread with a relatively higher flour protein content, but this was not always associated with the trend for the WWF. For most wheat varieties, the bread from WWF with the fine bran had the lowest specific loaf volume, darker crumb color, and larger hardness value than bread made with white flour or with WWF of other particle sizes. Overall, WWF with medium to coarse bran size was more suitable for bread production. The findings of this study contribute to the standardization of whole flour bran particle sizes for quality assessment and effective industrial production.

Quality of Low-Allergy Wheat ('O-Free') Flour and Optimization of Its Bread-Baking Performance.

This study explored the quality of hypoallergenic wheat ('O-free') developed in Korea and optimized the basic ingredients and processing conditions for making 'O-free' bread using response surface methodology. Water and yeast amounts and mixing and fermentation times were selected as factors, and each factor's tested range was set by a central composite design using Design Experts: water 52-60 g, yeast 1.5-4.5 g, mixing time 2.5-5 min, and fermentation time 50-70 min. Bread height, volume, and firmness were analyzed to determine bread quality. Flour quality analysis showed that 'O-free' flour's gluten strength was weak. 'O-free' flour exhibited inferior bread-making performance compared to representative bread flour. Water and yeast amounts and mixing time, except for fermentation time, affected bread quality significantly. The interaction between yeast and fermentation also affected bread quality significantly. The optimized condition for making bread using 'O-free' flour is 60 g of water, 2.6 g of yeast, 2.5 min of mixing time, and 70.0 min of fermentation time. In conclusion, 'O-free' flour with the changed gluten composition showed poor gluten strength and bread-making performance. However, modifying the formulation of the basic ingredients and processing conditions could significantly improve the production of high-quality hypoallergenic bread.

통밀빵 제조에 적합한 통밀가루 품질지표 규명

Purpose: This study was to identify the major quality parameters of whole wheat flour suitable for making whole wheat bread. Methods: The commercial twelve whole wheat flour samples were analyzed for physicochemical characteristics and bread-baking performance. Results: The tested samples showed a wide range of ash contents, water, sodium carbonate solvent retention capacity (SRC), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-sedimentation volumes, particle sizes, and colors. The bread-making performance of the flours also showed significant variations in crumb colors, dough heights, bread heights, and bread volumes. The correlation and principal component analyses of the quality characteristics of whole wheat flour and whole wheat bread showed that the dough height and the bread height and volume correlated negatively with the ash content and water SRC but positively with the SDS sedimentation of the whole wheat flour. However, the firmness of the bread showed the opposite relationship. Conclusion: In conclusion, the ash content, water SRC, and SDS sedimentation volume of the whole wheat flour can be used as valuable indicators to predict the quality of the whole wheat bread.

Influence of germination on bread-making behaviors, functional and shelf-life properties, and overall quality of highland barley bread

In this study, the impact of highland barley germination on bread-making performance, shelf-life, and nutritional value was evaluated. Highland barley was germinated for 24, 48, and 72 h. Results showed that germination produced a functional bread with significantly enhanced nutritional value, as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Consuming 100 g of germinated highland barley bread per day provides the required minimum daily intake of β-glucan and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (3 g, 100 mg/respectively). Excessive germination (48 and 72 h respectively) negatively affected the formation of the gluten network, which decreased flour water absorption, dough development time, and stability. Additionally, LF-NMR results suggested that germination decreased T21, T22, and T23 populations during storage. This study confirmed that germination under controlled conditions for 24 h could improve bread quality and properties. Significantly, bread made with germinated barley (24 h) had the best impact on bread-making performance, shelf-life, sensory attributes, and overall acceptability.

Impact of oleuropein on rheology and breadmaking performance of wheat doughs, and functional features of bread

SummaryOleuropein (OP) is a polyphenol present in drupes and leaves of olive tree with health benefits and, as antioxidant, potentiality to alter gluten functionality. Effects of OP inclusion to wheat flour (0.01% and 0.02% on flour weight basis) on dough rheology and breadmaking performance, and bread features were investigated. Farinograph, uniaxial extension and shear rheometry (oscillatory and creep‐recovery) were applied. Doughs containing OP were stronger, more elastic, and less sticky indicating the ability of OP to act as flour improver. The strengthening effect of OP on gluten led to the increase in bread volume and softer crumb compared to control. A lower crumb density of bread with the addition of OP was related to a higher in vitro glycaemic response. An increase in the antioxidant capacity of bread made with the phenolic compound was also found.

Normal rice flours perform better in gluten-free bread than glutinous rice flours.

This study aims to determine gluten-free bread-making potential of different types of rice, particularly comparing normal rice versus glutinous rice flours. Proximate and chemical compositions, hydration, and dough mixing and pasting properties of ten rice cultivars (i.e., seven types of normal rice and three types of glutinous rice), and quality parameters (specific volume, texture profile, and crumb structure) of gluten-free bread from these flours were assessed. Significant differences were observed in flour properties among different types of rice. Significant correlations were observed between bread specific volume and rice amylose content (r=0.91, p<0.01), as well as pasting peak time (r=0.86, p<0.01) and final viscosity (r=0.77, p<0.01). Further, strong correlations were observed between bread resilience and properties of rice flour, such as amylose content (r=0.91, p<0.01), pasting peak viscosity (r=0.83, p<0.01), and final viscosity (r=0.93, p<0.01). In conclusion, the normal rice types exhibited much better gluten-free bread-making performances than glutinous flour. Important parameters of rice flour determining its gluten-free bread-making properties include amylose content, water retention capacity, and pasting properties. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Compared with glutenous rice flour, normal rice flour leads to more viscous paste and gluten-free breads with larger volume, evener texture, and better resilience. This study provides guidance for practical uses of rice flours in improving gluten-free dough and bread quality.

알러지 저감밀 오프리 밀가루의 품질 특성과 제빵 및 제면 적성

Purpose: This study aimed to explore the quality characteristics and bread-making and noodle-making properties of low allergy wheat (‘O-free’) flour. Methods: ‘O-free’ flour and three commercial wheat flours (high-H, medium-M, low-L gluten strength) were used. Solvent retention capacity (SRC), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-sedimentation volume, pasting and gelatinization properties using rapid visco analyzer and differential scanning calorimetry, and dough mixing property using a mixograph of the flour samples were determined. In addition, their bread- and noodle-making performance was evaluated. Results: The SRC values in all four solvents and the SDS-sedimentation volume of ‘O-free’ flour were lower than those of H and M flour and higher than those of L flour. The pasting and gelatinization properties of ‘O-free’ flour starch were similar to those of the other flour samples. The dough mixing property and bread-making performance of the ‘O-free’ flour were inferior to the H and M flour but superior to the L flour. On the other hand, the noodle-making performance of the ‘O-free’ flour was inferior to all three flours. Conclusions: Overall, it was confirmed that ‘O-free’ flour, which lacks omega-gliadin, has inferior gluten protein quality and processing performance compared to H or M flours that are mainly used for making bread and noodles. Performance improvement was necessary by controlling other basic ingredients and processing conditions.

Sprouting Time Affects Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) Functionality and Bread-Baking Performance.

Despite being considered a climate-resilient crop, sorghum is still underutilized in food processing because of the limited starch and protein functionality. For this reason, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of sprouting time on sorghum functional properties and the possibility to exploit sprouted sorghum in bread making. In this context, red sorghum was sprouted for 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 h at 27 °C. Sprouting time did not strongly affect the sorghum composition in terms of total starch, fiber, and protein contents. On the other hand, the developed proteolytic activity had a positive effect on oil-absorption capacity, pasting, and gelation properties. Conversely, the increased α-amylase activity in sprouted samples (≥36 h) altered starch functionality. As regards sorghum-enriched bread, the blends containing 48 h-sprouted sorghum showed high specific volume and low crumb firmness. In addition, enrichment in sprouted sorghum increased both the in vitro protein digestibility and the slowly digestible starch fraction of bread. Overall, this study showed that 48 h-sprouted sorghum enhanced the bread-making performance of wheat-based products.

The effects of hydrocolloids on the thermomechanical, viscoelastic and microstructural properties of whole wheat flour dough

To use hydrocolloids for improving the breadmaking performance of whole wheat flour dough, relationships between hydrocolloid addition and dough thermomechanical, viscoelastic and microstructural properties were investigated. The responses of dough thermomechanical and viscoelastic properties to hydrocolloid addition depended on the hydrocolloid type. A power-law gel model fitted well to the linear and non-linear viscoelastic parameters, i.e., G'(ω), G''(ω) and J(t), of doughs. The model parameters gel strength (S) and exponent (n) were well indicative of hydrocolloid-induced changes in dough strength and relaxation behavior. The torque-scale mixolab parameters C2, C3 and C5, showed a good linear relationship with hydrocolloid addition. These parameters were also well correlated with S and n. Hydrocolloids played a crucial role in the modification for dough microstructure by forming a more continuous gluten network and better connection between starch granules and protein matrix.

Sprouting as a pre-processing for producing quinoa-enriched bread

The impact of 48 h sprouted quinoa (SQ) was assessed in bread-making. Wheat flour (WF) was replaced with SQ at different levels (i.e., 10:90, 20:80 and 30:70, SQ:WF ratio). Once the optimal replacement level of SQ was identified, the bread-making performance of this ingredient was compared with those of pearled quinoa (PQ), commonly used in bread-making.Starch pasting properties and gluten aggregation behavior were not strongly affected at 20:80 level. Regardless the replacement level, SQ caused an increase in dough water absorption and in softening degree, and a decrease in stability, suggesting weakening of the gluten network. During leavening, SQ improved dough development and gas production, due to increased sugar content (i.e. maltose, sucrose and D-glucose). The best bread-making performance (highest bread specific volume and lowest crumb firmness) was obtained at 20:80 replacement level. Compared to PQ, SQ exhibited the best leavening capacity (high dough development, gas production and gas retention) and bread properties (high specific volume and low crumb firmness), likely due to its higher sugar content. Moreover, 20SQ bread was characterized by a decreased bitterness assessed by electronic-tongue. In conclusion, sprouting might be considered a valid alternative to pearling to improve the characteristics of quinoa enriched bread