Brazilian Forest Research Articles

Antifungal susceptibility of the endophytic fungus Rhinocladiella similis (URM 7800) isolated from the Caatinga dry forest in Brazil.

The present study reports a new occurrence of Rhinocladiella similis isolated as an endophytic fungus in the Caatinga dry tropical forest in Brazil and describes its antifungal susceptibility. The isolate R. similis URM 7800 was obtained from leaves of the medicinal plant Myracrodruon urundeuva. Its morphological characterization was performed on potato dextrose agar medium and molecular analysis using the ITS rDNA sequence. The antifungal susceptibility profile was defined using the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) protocol M38-A2. The colony of isolate URM 7800 showed slow growth, with an olivaceous-gray color and powdery mycelium; in microculture, it showed the typical features of R. similis. In the antifungal susceptibility test, isolate URM 7800 showed high minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for amphotericin B (>16 μg/mL), voriconazole (16 μg/mL), terbinafine (>0.5 μg/mL), and caspofungin (>8 μg/mL), among other antifungal drugs. Pathogenic melanized fungi are frequently isolated in environments where humans may be exposed, and these data show that it is essential to know if these isolates possess antifungal resistance.

Croton sertanejus, a new species from Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest in Brazil, and redescription of C. echioides (Euphorbiaceae)

During a taxonomic study of the species of Croton sect. Adenophylli occurring in Brazil, approximately 140 collections usually identified as Croton echioides, C. rhamnifolius or C. rhamnifolioides caught our attention due to the distinct morphology of vegetative and reproductive organs. After the analysis of these collections, we concluded that they represent a new species, C. sertanejus Sodré & M.J.Silva sp. nov., which was also corroborated by an anatomical study of their leaves. This new species can be differentiated by pseudomonopodial branching, leaves with petioles up to 1.7 cm long, 4–6 subsessile nectary glands and indumentum of sessile trichomes on both surfaces. Detailed descriptions, including details of leaf anatomy, are provided for C. sertanejus sp. nov. and C. echioides, its closely related species. We also formalize the synonymization of C. kalkmannii under C. echioides and re-evaluate the typification of these names, in order to better clarify their taxonomic status.

Morphological variation in the common lancehead populations: Sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic patterns

AbstractThe common lancehead Bothrops jararaca is widespread in the Atlantic Forest in Brazil. The species is known to show a marked sexual dimorphism pattern, with the female being larger than the male. However, most efforts in clarifying morphological variation between the sexes are often focused on a single population. In this paper, we investigate how sexual dimorphism and ontogenetic trajectories vary among populations as well as the ontogenetic trajectories of B. jararaca. We analyzed 211 specimens from a coastal and a highland population and measured 17 morphological traits, including linear and meristic characteristics, and the analysis revealed a clear but variable effect of sex and population. Females were larger than males in all evaluated populations. Furthermore, females in the coastal population were generally smaller than in the highland population but had significantly more scales. Widespread species often experience differential environmental pressures even in terms of biotic and abiotic factors. We attribute the results found herein to specificities in prey availability and climatic conditions which affect the ontogenetic pattern between the sexes and the populations, resulting in specific sexual dimorphism patterns.

Efektivitas Greenpeace Sebagai INGO Lingkungan Dalam Menangani Deforestasi Hutan Amazon di Brazil Tahun 2018-2021

Deforestation of the Amazon that has occurred for decades continues to increase every year and presents a real threat. Greenpeace as an environmental INGO also participates in dealing with the deforestation case by making various efforts. The purpose of this study is to explain the effectiveness of Greenpeace in dealing with cases of deforestation in the Amazon Forest in Brazil in 2018-2021. In this study, the author uses the theory of INGO effectiveness and the concept of environmentalism. The analysis in this study uses a qualitative descriptive method with document research data collection techniques. The results of this study indicate that the efforts that have been made by Greenpeace have an impact on the condition of deforestation in the Amazon forest. The effort to monitor the Amazon forest with indigenous peoples is part of the All Eyes on the Amazon project which involves several parties and various advanced technologies. This supervision narrows the space for illegal activities so that by 2020 there will be a reduction in the rate of deforestation by 62 percent on the customary lands of the Karipuna people. However, this decrease has only a small impact considering that the customary land area is only 3.83 percent of the total area of ​​the Amazon forest and there will be an increase in deforestation again in 2021. Based on this, it can be concluded that Greenpeace has not been effective in dealing with the deforestation of the Amazon Forest.

Location and concentration of the forest bioelectricity supply in Brazil: A space-time analysis

This article analyzed the location and concentration of forest bioelectricity in Brazil, from 2000 to 2019, available from the National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL) and used the following indicators: Location Quotient (QL), Concentration Index [CR (k)], Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), Hoover Index (H) and Coefficient of Gini (G). The main results showed that the supply of electricity from Brazilian forest biomass increased from 562.90 MW and 11 thermoelectric plants in 2000 to 3532.61 MW and 115 thermoelectric plants in 2019, providing an average growth of 10.15% yy of the granted installed power and 13.20% p.a. of thermoelectric power plants. The QL inferred a high concentration of energy supply from black liquor (Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Espírito Santo, Bahia, Maranhão and Mato Grosso do Sul) and forest residues in several states, mainly in the North region. At the state level, the CR (4), CR (8) and HHI indexes indicated a deconcentration trend. The identification of the location and concentration pattern that the greatest offer was associated with industrial pulp and paper complexes. These results can indicate to investors the impact of electric power generation in the sector and the most relevant location for the installation of new thermoelectric plants.

The tropical biomass & carbon project–An application for forest biomass and carbon estimates

This article introduces the Tropical Biomass & Carbon Application – the ‘TB&C App’, a web application available on the permanent link www.tropicalbiomass.com. The TB&C App requires as input attributes ‘the smallest and largest diameters’, ‘number of trees ha−1’, basal area ha−1, and ‘parameters of the diameter (beta) distribution’ describing stand structure. The App delivers outputs at two levels: (1) Stand level, including mean aboveground biomass (AGB) and carbon (AGC), in Mg ha−1, along with confidence intervals (CIs) as measures of uncertainty, and; (2) Tree level estimates, with AGB and diameter for every simulated tree. Phase 1 of the project TB&C comprises four Brazilian forest (and non-forest) formations: Campinarana, Floresta estacional, Floresta ombrofila, and Savana. This article aims to (i) describe the algorithm written for the TB&C App, and (ii) present results of Phase 1. This first phase counts on a standardized database of 1,428 trees with field-measured dry AGB, from plots across the different formations, which is the largest tree-biomass database compiled so far in Brazil. Model uncertainties were incorporated into the modeling process, allowing computation of CIs through an uncertainty approach. The total variance of residuals of AGB was also modeled, aiming at predicting CIs as a function of the quantity of AGB. An analysis of reliability of the equations implemented in the TB&C App indicates that more than 95% (n = 64,000) of the true AGB's fit into the CI outputted by the TB&C App. A comparison with other approaches in the literature shows significant agreement with previous estimates and more conservative estimates where previously-published estimates disagreed with the TB&C App. We cite as advantages of the TB&C App; (i) reliability of the outputs, (ii) a user-friendly layout, (iii) AGB and AGC estimates provided along with robust CIs, and (iv) estimates at the stand and tree levels with consistent totals. A biomass dataset containing information on 64,000 plots is also delivered as supplement of this paper.

Predicting the impacts of palm heart and fruit harvesting using Integral Projection Models

Due to the increasing human impact on natural resources, we assessed the harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFP) to verify demographic changes in populations of native palm trees. Euterpe edulis is native to the Atlantic Forest in Brazil, characterized by high deforestation and fragmentation. This palm is also targeted for palm heart and fruit harvesting. The threats posed by such factors motivated this study, as they might lead to a decrease in natural populations. The viability of sustainably harvesting the species in small fragmented areas is unknown. We performed simulations for palm heart and fruit harvesting in three small populations (entitled: SH, AJ, and ES) sampled in a 1-year interval (2010–2011) to verify whether these practices were sustainable. Different harvesting scenarios were simulated: (1) no harvesting; (2) harvesting of palm heart of reproductive individuals; (3) harvesting of palm heart of large individuals (diameter at ground level > 65 mm, including reproductive or not). and (4) fruit harvesting. Each scenario was simulated at different harvesting intensities (percentage of individuals or fruits harvested). Integral projection models were used to calculate two demographic parameters, namely, population growth rate (λ) and elasticity. In the no harvesting scenario, the populations had λ > 1 (SH = 1.0655, AJ = 1.0184, and ES = 1.0862). Palm heart harvesting proved to be sustainable in both scenarios, but at a higher intensity in scenario (2) (SH = 83%, AJ = 14%, and ES = 35%) than in scenario (3) (SH = 17%, AJ = 4%, and ES = 16%). Fruit harvesting was sustainable at any intensity for all three populations. As the survival of large individuals has a high impact on λ, palm heart harvesting was in most cases sustainable only at low intensities. In contrast, as fecundity and seedling survival have a low impact on λ, fruit harvesting still proved sustainable at high intensities. Although the populations are tolerant to harvesting to some degree, it must be conducted carefully. As populations are fragile due to the current condition of reduced population size, the removal of palms at any rate can affect population persistence and generate possible cascade effects on the forest.

Seasonal Ecosystem Productivity in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest (Caatinga) Using Flux Tower Measurements and Remote Sensing Data

The Caatinga dry forest encompasses 11% of the total continental territory of Brazil. Nevertheless, most research on the relationship between phenology and ecosystem productivity of Brazilian tropical forests is aimed at the Amazon basin. Thus, in this study we evaluated the seasonality of ecosystem productivity (gross primary production—GPP) in a preserved Caatinga environment in northeast Brazil. Analyses were carried out using eddy covariance measurements and satellite-derived data from sensor MODIS (MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, MOD17 and MOD13 products). In addition to GPP, we investigated water use efficiency (WUE) and meteorological and phenological aspects through remotely sensed vegetation indices (NDVI and EVI). We verified that ecosystem productivity is limited mainly by evapotranspiration, with maximum GPP values registered in the wetter months, indicating a strong dependency on water availability. NDVI and EVI were positively associated with GPP (r = 0.69 and 0.81, respectively), suggesting a coupling between the emergence of new leaves and the phenology of local photosynthetic capacity. WUE, on the other hand, was strongly controlled by consecutive dry days and not necessarily by total precipitation amount. The vegetation indices adequately described interannual variations of the forest response to environmental factors, and GPP MODIS presented a good relationship with tower-measured GPP in dry (R2 = 0.76) and wet (R2 = 0.62) periods.

No evidence of local deforestation leakage from protected areas establishment in Brazil's Amazon and Atlantic Forest

Establishing Protected areas (PAs) could displace or cause ‘leakage’ of deforestation into adjacent areas. Such leakage would potentially offset PAs' conservation effort by jeopardizing forest conservation goals and impeding financial mechanisms such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation - REDD+. Here we investigate forest loss inside PAs' borders and whether leakage occurred following the establishment of new PAs (n = 425) within the Amazon and the Atlantic forests in Brazil between 2004 and 2017. We applied a Before-After-Control-Intervention statistical design with a matching approach to evaluate deforestation leakage from PAs' establishment using a spatial (inside and outside PAs)– temporal (before and after PA establishment) measure of deforestation rates. We also used “Random Forest” to investigate the drivers of the effect of PAs' establishment on their surrounding areas. We found that when PAs' establishment led to reducing deforestation inside their boundaries, their surrounding also experienced a reduction in deforestation (“blockage”). Similarly, when PAs' establishment could not reduce deforestation inside their boundaries, their surroundings also experienced increased deforestation. Such a pattern was most common for Indigenous territories, especially in the deforestation arch in the Amazon. However, we did not find significant evidence for leakage as PAs' surroundings with a significant increase in deforestation were associated with PAs unable to significantly reduce deforestation within their boundaries. Therefore, “leakage” should not limit the establishment of new PAs. Instead, greater investments into reinforcement are needed for existing PAs, with high priority given to Indigenous Territories.

Forest Bioeconomy in Brazil: Potential Innovative Products from the Forest Sector

The forest sector plays an important role in the circular bioeconomy due to its focus on renewable materials that can substitute fossil or greenhouse gas emissions-intensive materials, store carbon in bio-based products and provide ecosystem services. This study investigates the state of the bioeconomy in Brazil and its forest industry. Specifically, this study presents some examples of novel wood-based products being developed or manufactured in Brazil and discusses possible opportunities for the development of the country’s forest sector. The pulp and paper industry plays an important role in the forest sector. It has also been showing advancements in the development of cascading uses of wood invalue-added products, such as nanocrystalline cellulose, wood-based textile fibers, lignin-based products, and chemical derivatives from tall oil. Product and business diversification through the integration of the pulp and paper industry to biorefineries could provide new opportunities. Moreover, biochemicals derived from non-wood forest products, such as resin and tannins could promote diversification and competitiveness of the Brazilian forest industry. Although some engineered wood products are still a novelty in Brazil, the market for such products will likely expand in the future following the global trends in wood construction.

Variation in the water use and gas exchange of two Brazilian tropical dry forest phytophysiognomies in response to successional stage

Water availability is the main limiting factor to plants growth in tropical dry forests, influencing vegetation ecophysiological responses throughout ecological succession. In this study, we analyzed the water potential and gas exchange in two phytophysiognomies of a Brazilian tropical dry forest, along a chronosequence and in moments of low and high VPD. We selected an area of Crystalline Caatinga (CC) and Arboreal Caatinga (AC), and in both sites delimited three plots at different successional stages (initial, intermediate, and late). At each collection site within areas at each successional stage, we sampled the four most abundant species. For CC plants, water potential and gas exchange were similar at all successional stages, regarding VPD, and higher than in AC site. Trees growing in the AC site showed more plastic responses than those in the CC area, mainly in gas exchange, whereas CC plants (mainly herbs) showed a higher variation in water potential. We established that this differential response occurred due to the structure of the plant community and soil water availability. Trees’ leaf traits tend to present long-term responses, and we observed that vegetation in the AC site showed most markedly differences among successional stages than plants in CC site.

Ultrastructure and chemistry of the cell wall of gelatinous fibers from native rubber trees

During the growth of trees, tension forces act on the trunk and branches in order to maintain their posture. When present, gelatinous fibers are considered responsible for this force, due to the presence of the gelatinous layer (G-layer). The cell wall structure and the chemical characteristics of the gelatinous fibers of Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex. A. Juss.) Mull. Arg., from a native forest in Brazil, were studied. For this purpose, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Wiesner and Mäule histochemical tests, and Fourier transformed infrared microspectroscopy (FT-IR) were carried out. The non-gelatinous fibers presented a typical P + S1 + S2 + S3 configuration, while the gelatinous fibers presented a P + S1 + S2 + G configuration, in which the G-layer presented a lamellar structure. The chemical characterization of the lignified walls in both types of fiber indicated the presence of guaiacyl units in the lignin, however, at low levels. The G-layer did not react to the tests used, indicating the absence of lignin or low lignification. FT-IR analysis detected slightly higher intensities for signals related to G units in the gelatinous fibers than in the non-gelatinous fibers. The S / G ratio indicated G and S lignin units in equal proportions, differently from literature for this species. The lignification process and the structure of the fiber walls present in rubber trees vary depending on the origin of the wood material.

An ethnogeomorphic case study of conservation practices in Southeast Brazil

Controversy and conflict surround the design and implementation of protected areas in tropical forests in Brazil. This case study applies an ethnogeomorphic perspective to relate local understandings of landscape to conservation goals in a protected area in Rio de Janeiro State. Externally imposed environmental protection areas fail to incorporate understandings of local farmer practices that shaped the landscape notionally being protected. Rather, a focus on reafforestation and technocentric farming techniques ignores flexible and adaptive land use practices in managing the protected area. Findings show that ethnogeomorphic research that generates multiple readings of landscapes could support more inclusive, locally informed conservation programmes.

Sampling plan for socioeconomic development indicators in Brazil: practical implications when considering precision and cost

Socioeconomic development indicators such as Income, Human Development Index, and Gini Index have explained recent deforestation events in Brazil. These indicators, obtained from the demographic census, are expensive and are released every ten years. Despite being costly, they are important descriptors of the phenomenon of deforestation that occurs in one of the most relevant ecosystems in the world, the Brazilian forests. Therefore, the objective in this study was to detect the most representative and the lowest costly sample in order to obtain the referred indicators, from Brazilian municipalities from 2000 to 2010. The sample mean and confidence interval were obtained to be compared with the population average. The mean and confidence interval estimators come from 1,000 resamples according to simple random sampling and stratified random by geographic region. We evaluated the following sample intensities: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% of the Brazilian municipalities. The results indicated that: a) 10% of Brazilian municipalities are sufficient to represent Income, HDI and Gini; b) We recommend both random and stratified sampling when selecting the municipalities that will provide the HDI and Gini values, on the contrary, for Income, the indicated sampling is the stratified one. These results show the importance of applied research in sampling and simulation to optimize the survey of demographic data collection, in a situation of budgetary constraint, in countries of vast dimensions such as Brazil. This study can increase understanding of the importance of socioeconomic development indicators to estimating progressive forest loss in Brazil, the country with the largest rainforest in the world.

Chemical Composition and In Vitro Anti-Helicobacter pylori Activity of Campomanesia lineatifolia Ruiz & Pavón (Myrtaceae) Essential Oil.

Helicobacter pylori is the most common cause of gastritis and peptic ulcers, and the number of resistant strains to multiple conventional antimicrobial agents has been increasing in different parts of the world. Several studies have shown that some essential oils (EO) have bioactive compounds, which can be attributed to antimicrobial activity. Therefore, EOs have been proposed as a natural alternative to antibiotics, or for use in combination with conventional treatment for H. pylori infection. Campomanesia lineatifolia is an edible species found in the Brazilian forests, and their leaves are traditionally used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. Anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective, and antioxidant properties are attributed to C. lineatifolia leaf extracts; however, studies related to the chemical constituents of the essential oil and anti-H. pylori activity is not described. This work aims to identify the chemical composition of the EO from C. lineatifolia leaves and evaluate the anti-H. pylori activity. The EO was obtained by hydrodistillation from C. lineatifolia leaves and characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analyses. To assess the in vitro anti-H. pylori activity of the C. lineatifolia leaf’s EO (6 μL/mL–25 μL/mL), we performed broth microdilution assays by using type cultures (ATCC 49503, NCTC 11638, both clarithromycin-sensitive) and clinical isolate strains (SSR359, clarithromycin-sensitive, and SSR366, clarithromycin-resistant). A total of eight new compounds were identified from the EO (3-hexen-1-ol (46.15%), α-cadinol (20.35%), 1,1-diethoxyethane (13.08%), 2,3-dicyano-7,7-dimethyl-5,6-benzonorbornadiene (10.78%), aromadendrene 2 (3.0%), [3-S-(3α, 3aα, 6α, 8aα)]-4,5,6,7,8,8a-hexahydro-3,7,7-trimethyl-8-methylene-3H-3a,6-methanoazulene (2.99%), α-bisabolol (0.94%), and β-curcumene (0.8%)), corresponding to 98.09% of the total oil composition. The EO inhibited the growth of all H. pylori strains tested (MIC 6 μL/mL). To our knowledge, the current study investigates the relation between the chemical composition and the anti-H. pylori activity of the C. lineatifolia EO for the first time. Our findings show the potential use of the C. lineatifolia leaf EO against sensitive and resistant clarithromycin H. pylori strains and suggest that this antimicrobial activity could be related to its ethnopharmacological use.

Land use regulates microbial biomass and activity in highly degraded soil from Brazilian dry tropical forest

ABSTRACT Tropical dry areas in Brazil cover approximately 1 million km2 and are significant contributors to soil carbon (C) loss to the atmosphere. This study is part of a large project that has evaluated the effects of land cover type variation on chemical and biological attributes in a reference area of the Brazilian semi-arid region. Five different land cover types were selected: native forest, Tabebuia alba (Ridley) Sandwith, Anadenanthera falcata Benth forest, secondary scrub regeneration and agricultural no-irrigation maize. Different types of land use influenced soil variables mainly in the superficial layer. Soil organic carbon (SOC) reduced to 73% of native forest in agricultural no-irrigation maize and 76% in secondary scrub regene for dry seasons. Reforestation management with T. alba or A. falcata showed positive effects on soil quality with high levels of SOC and labile fractions in both the dry and rainy seasons. Our data affirm the importance of more sustainable management practices for soils under dry tropical forest since these areas exhibit slow recovery of SOC and microbiological attributes. Thus, we recommend reforestation of dry tropical areas with T. alba and A. falcata aiming to improve the health and sustainability of degraded soils.

Canopy palm cover across the Brazilian Amazon forests mapped with airborneLiDARdata and deep learning

AbstractThe Amazon region in Brazil contains c. 5% of the palm species of the world. However, palm cover at macroecological scales has not yet been quantified in this biome. Here, we used high spatial resolution LiDAR data, acquired from 610 flightlines over the Brazilian Amazon, to map canopy palm cover for the first time using a deep learning approach. The image segmentation model from U‐Net deep learning was selected for mapping palm segments using the LiDAR canopy height model (CHM) at 0.5‐m spatial resolution. To train and validate the model, we manually delineated 6971 canopy palm segments over 931.43 ha of forests on four training sites by inspecting their unique star‐shaped crown architecture in the CHM. The results indicated an accuracy of 80% to automatically map canopy palm area. The approach detected >1.1 million palm segments over the 480 000 ha sampled by LiDAR and roughly estimated 1.05 billion palm segments for the Brazilian Amazon. Palm cover was not evenly distributed over the Amazon, revealing undocumented hotspots of high cover (>5%) in eastern Amazon (Pará state), and confirming documented hotspots in southwest (Acre state) and north of the region (Roraima state). Palm segment height was strongly and positively correlated with forest height, where palm segments showed overall lower height. A higher canopy palm cover was observed over shorter forests, while the opposite was found over taller forests, where palms may not be visible from the canopy. Palm segments occurred more frequently at valleys but they were also observed in other landscapes, depending on site location and forest height. Our findings highlight the disproportional occurrence of palm cover in some Amazonian canopies. This fact should be taken into account to improve regional carbon cycle representation and promote initiatives of biodiversity conservation and bioeconomic use of these forests.

High genetic diversity of alphacoronaviruses in bat species (Mammalia: Chiroptera) from the Atlantic Forest in Brazil.

Bat coronaviruses (Bat-CoVs) represent around 35% of all virus genomes described in bats. Brazil has one of the highest mammal species diversity, with 181 species of bats described so far. However, few Bat-CoV surveillance programmes were carried out in the country. Thus, our aim was to jevaluate the Bat-CoV diversity in the Atlantic Forest, the second biome with the highest number of bat species in Brazil. We analysed 456 oral and rectal swabs and 22 tissue samples from Atlantic Forest bats, detecting Alphacoronavirus in 44 swab samples (9.6%) targeting the RdRp gene from seven different bat species, three of which have never been described as Bat-CoV hosts. Phylogenetic analysis of the amino acid (aa) sequences coding the RdRp gene grouped the sequences obtained in our study with Bat-CoV previously detected in identical or congeneric bat species, belonging to four subgenera, with high aa identity (over 90%). The RdRp gene was also detected in three tissue samples from Diphylla ecaudata and Sturnira lilium, and the partial S gene was successfully sequenced in five tissues and swab samples of D. ecaudata. The phylogenetic analysis based on the partial S gene obtained here grouped the sequence of D. ecaudata with CoV from Desmodus rotundus previously detected in Peru and Brazil, belonging to the Amalacovirus subgenus, with aa identity ranging from 73.6% to 88.8%. Our data reinforce the wide distribution of Coronaviruses in bats from Brazil and the novelty of three bats species as Bat-CoV hosts and the co-circulation of four Alphacoronavirus subgenera in Brazil.

Bioremediation potential of industrial laundry effluent by agaricomycetes from brazilian tropical dry forest

Mycotic bioremediation of effluents from industrial jeans laundries is a necessary biotechnological treatment to prevent contamination of water bodies. In phase I, the discoloration of Indigo Carmine Dye (ICD) and Textile Effluent (TE) by seven species of Agaricomycetes from the brazilian tropical dry forest (Caatinga) was evaluated. First, nutritional stress was caused by Nitrogen Limitation (NL) at three experimental times, T1 (1 day). T2 (4 days) and T3 (7 days). In phase II, microorganisms were cultivated in the initial growth times Gi1 (10 days) and Gi2 (25 days), Without Addition of Nutrients (WAN) and stress was induced by NL (T1). Subsequently, ICD and TE discoloration tests continued for 28 days. In the ecotoxic analysis, the biotreated samples in phase II were tested on nauplii of Artemia HIGH 5 without the addition of food. In phase I, the percentages of ICD and TE discoloration were greater than 55% using fungi F1, F2, F5 and F6 for 10 days without sterility. In phase II, the best percentages of discoloration were found for TE in Gi1 and for ICD in Gi2, with F1 and F5 (identified by molecular biology). The results showed that Gi1 (WAN) increased the biodegradation of TE and Gi2 (WAN) favored the biodegradation of ICD, in T1 (NL) without sterility. The best enzymatic activity of laccase and lignin peroxidase was presented in F5. The enzyme extracts had a Michaelis-Menten kinetic behavior. All samples of TE bioremediated in phase II no showed toxicity on Artemia sp. in 48 hours of experimentation.

Biases and limitations of Global Forest Change and author-generated land cover maps in detecting deforestation in the Amazon.

Studying land use change in protected areas (PAs) located in tropical forests is a major conservation priority due to high conservation value (e.g., species richness and carbon storage) here, coupled with generally high deforestation rates. Land use change researchers use a variety of land cover products to track deforestation trends, including maps they produce themselves and readily available products, such as the Global Forest Change (GFC) dataset. However, all land cover maps should be critically assessed for limitations and biases to accurately communicate and interpret results. In this study, we assess deforestation in PA complexes located in agricultural frontiers in the Amazon Basin. We studied three specific sites: Amboró and Carrasco National Parks in Bolivia, Jamanxim National Forest in Brazil, and Tambopata National Reserve and Bahuaja-Sonene National Park in Peru. Within and in 20km buffer areas around each complex, we generated land cover maps using composites of Landsat imagery and supervised classification, and compared deforestation trends to data from the GFC dataset. We then performed a dissimilarity analysis to explore the discrepancies between the two remote sensing products. Both the GFC and our supervised classification showed that deforestation rates were higher in the 20km buffer than inside the PAs and that Jamanxim National Forest had the highest deforestation rate of the PAs we studied. However, GFC maps showed consistently higher rates of deforestation than our maps. Through a dissimilarity analysis, we found that many of the inconsistencies between these datasets arise from different treatment of mixed pixels or different parameters in map creation (for example, GFC does not detect reforestation after 2012). We found that our maps underestimated deforestation while GFC overestimated deforestation, and that true deforestation rates likely fall between our two estimates. We encourage users to consider limitations and biases when using or interpreting our maps, which we make publicly available, and GFC’s maps.