Spreading Branches Research Articles

千里ニュータウン集合住宅団地内に現存する樹木の樹形と立地との関連

Through the development process of collective housing sites in Senri New Town, planted areas in residential lots havebeen established as a component of natural and artificial environment of the area. Facing a challenge of restoring old collectivehousings, we intended to clarify characteristics of existing arbores in collective housing sites developed by Japan HousingCorporation. Applying data of tree height, branch spread, and trunk circumference, the characteristics of tree figure and itschanges were investigated by comparison of arboreal vegetation of two selected sites. Not only layout of buildings and open spaces but also maintenance practice of vegetation critically affected figures and growth of the trees. Among the findings, it wasnoted that development process, land formation in particular, of housing lot also affected their growth. In terms of decisionmaking on whether to conserve or transplant existing trees in restoration procedure, significance of those trees on the site shouldbe reorganized through evaluation on trees themselves, context of landscape and development process by revealing archivalrecords. Updating the records is also important to inherit the values of open spaces in collective housing sites as naturalenvironmental structure.

Cooling Effect of Shade Trees with Different Characteristics in a Subtropical Urban Park

The effect of shade trees on the air and surface-soil temperature reduction under the canopy was studied in a park in subtropical Taipei City, Taiwan. Ten species of trees and two species of bamboo, which had tightly clustered tall stems and spreading branches resembling trees in shape, were chosen for the study. In the summer of 2007, we measured leaf and canopy characteristics of each species. The microclimate conditions under the tree canopies and an unshaded open space were measured repeatedly at middays without precipitation. In comparison with the nearby unshaded open space, air temperatures under the canopies were 0.64 to 2.52 °C lower, whereas the surface-soil temperatures were 3.28 to 8.07 °C lower. Regression analysis revealed the relative contributions to air cooling effect by the plant's leaf color lightness, foliage density, leaf thickness, and leaf texture (surface roughness) in decreasing order. Foliage density had the greatest contribution to surface-soil cooling followed by leaf thickness, leaf texture, and leaf color lightness in that order. Regression analysis also revealed that solar radiation, wind velocity, and vapor pressure at the site had significant effects on temperature reduction attributable to shade trees or bamboo.

Effects of growth stage on enzymatic saccharification and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of bamboo shoots for bioethanol production

Bamboo is a fast-growing renewable biomass that is widely distributed in Asia. Although bamboo is recognised as a useful resource, its utilization is limited and further development is required. Immature bamboo shoots harvested before branch spread were found to be a good biomass resource to achieve a high saccharification yield. The saccharification yield of the shoots increased (up to 98% for immature Phyllostachys bambusoides) when xylanase was used in addition to cellulase. Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) processing converted immature shoots of P. bambusoides and Phyllostachys pubescens to ethanol with an ethanol yield of 169 and 139 g kg −1, respectively (98% and 81%, respectively, of the theoretical yields based on hexose conversion) when 12 FPU g −1 enzyme and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were used.

Lattice dynamics of cubic SrZrO 3

Using density functional perturbation theory, the optical dielectric constant, Born effective charges and phonon dispersion curves of cubic SrZrO 3 have been calculated. The obtained dispersion curves show a soft phonon branch spreading from R to M points of the cubic Brillouin zone. An analysis based on the symmetry relationships indicates that the experimentally observed low-symmetry phases of SrZrO 3 can be considered as results of the soft mode condensation at R and M points.

Drosophila MICAL regulates myofilament organization and synaptic structure

The overall size and structure of a synaptic terminal is an important determinant of its function. In a large-scale mutagenesis screen, designed to identify Drosophila mutants with abnormally structured neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), we discovered mutations in Drosophila mical, a conserved gene encoding a multi-domain protein with a N-terminal monooxygenase domain. In mical mutants, synaptic boutons do not sprout normally over the muscle surface and tend to form clusters along synaptic branches and at nerve entry sites. Consistent with high expression of MICAL in somatic muscles, immunohistochemical stainings reveal that the subcellular localization and architecture of contractile muscle filaments are dramatically disturbed in mical mutants. Instead of being integrated into a regular sarcomeric pattern, actin and myosin filaments are disorganized and accumulate beneath the plasmamembrane. Whereas contractile elements are strongly deranged, the proposed organizer of sarcomeric structure, D-Titin, is much less affected. Transgenic expression of interfering RNA molecules demonstrates that MICAL is required in muscles for the higher order arrangement of myofilaments. Ultrastructural analysis confirms that myosin-rich thick filaments enter submembranous regions and interfere with synaptic development, indicating that the disorganized myofilaments may cause the synaptic growth phenotype. As a model, we suggest that the filamentous network around synaptic boutons restrains the spreading of synaptic branches.

`H2-169' (Ambrosia™) Pear

‘H2-169’ is an early midseason, very large, productive, green pear (Pyrus communis L.) with exceptional texture and quality (Fig. 1). Picking date in Lafayette, Ind., is mid-August, which is earlier than ‘Bartlett’ (‘Williams’ Bon Cretien’). When ripened at room temperature the fl avor is rich and delicious. The texture is buttery and grit free with a very small core. Fruit can develop russet. The tree is round shaped with atypical spreading branches and produces annually. The tree is tolerant to fi reblight caused by Erwinia amylovora (Burr.) Winslow et al. similar to ‘Honeysweet’. ‘Ambrosia’ is the third release of the Purdue University pear breeding program after ‘Honeysweet’ (Janick, 1977) and ‘Green Jade’ (Janick, 2004).

Conservatives and the Politics of Land: Lord Winchilsea's National Agricultural Union, 1893–1901*

The ‘land question’ played a major part in late Victorian British politics. This article focuses on Conservative engagement with land politics, paying particular attention to a pressure group that has yet to receive serious attention from scholars: the earl of Winchilsea's National Agricultural Union (NAU). Established in 1893, the NAU had a significant impact on English agrarian politics in the 1890s. Its membership open to landlords, farmers and labourers, the NAU sought to mobilise mass support behind a legislative programme, which included tax relief for agricultural land, the reduction of railway rates and old age pensions. Within two years the Union claimed over 50,000 members. At the 1895 general election, 364 candidates backed all or parts of its programme. Winchilsea tried to organise his parliamentary supporters into an ‘Agricultural Party’ to promote NAU proposals at Westminster, but this effort failed. Moreover, outside parliament, success was limited. Notwithstanding NAU claims, membership probably never exceeded about 30,000, the spread of branches was uneven, and supporters proved reluctant to contribute time or money. After 1896, the NAU declined, not long surviving Winchilsea's death in September 1898. The Union's failure sheds light on contemporary Conservatism. Winchilsea's message of cross-class unity in defence of crisis-hit agriculture sprang from an out-of-date social vision, which cast the landed elite as exemplars of chivalrous noblesse oblige. By the 1890s, this had little resonance with the Conservative party, which in terms of land politics was moving towards reform, and specifically measures for the creation of peasant proprietors.

Growth behavior ofPhyllostachys nigra var.henonis (Bambusoideae) in Central China

In the Shennongjia National Nature Reserve of Central China, the vegetative growth behavior of henon bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra var.henonis (Mitford) Stapf. ex Rendle) was studied from shoot recruitment to culm establishment. In May, bamboo shoots emerging from the ground achieved an average density of 2.7 shoots m−2 during the sprouting phase of 16 days. However, about 32% of the new shoots died back before maturity. Insect damage, withering death and rodent predation were responsible for 57%, 29% and 14% of the total shoot mortality, respectively. From May to June, the shoots attained 400±23 cm during the height growth phase of 34 days, with a daily rate varying from 1 to 56 cm. All branches and leaves unfolded during the branch spreading phase from June to August. Shoot production was positively related to the density of standing culms, but negatively to both coverage and height of herb layers.

Overexpression of theDel1 gene causes dendritic branching in the mouse mesentery

In the present study, we established transgenic mice overexpressing Del1, a ligand of integrins, to examine the effect of overexpression of Del1 on vascular morphogenesis. In the wild-type mouse, mesenteric vessels are shaped like rakes consisting of a long stalk and short branches at the periphery. In contrast, those in transgenic mice showed typical dendritic architecture consisting of a few large primary branches with smaller spreading branches. The phenotype of mice overexpressing Del1 suggests the existence of a tissue-specific mechanism for branching morphogenesis in the mesentery.

Myrsine aquilonia and M. umbricola (Myrsinaceae), two new species from New Zealand

Myrsine aquilonia and M. umbricola are described as new species from New Zealand. M. aquilonia occurs on the Poor Knights Islands and at several places on the adjacent Northland Peninsula. It is distinguished from the other New Zealand species of Myrsine by an upright growth habit and being up to 12 m tall, spreading branches and branchlets, large‐diameter trunk, often producing suckers from exposed roots near the trunk, and large obovate green leaves with a prominent apical notch. M. aquilonia is considered to have a conservation status of “At Risk (Sparse)” using the New Zealand Threat Classification System, for while abundant on the Poor Knights Islands it is known from only a few plants at the other Northland locations of Tutukaka, Te Arai, and Unahi. Myrsine umbricola is known only from silver beech forest in the Tararua Range, lower North Island, where it is sympatric withM. divaricata. This species forms a small, bushy shrub up to 4 m tall with slender trunks, and has spreading branches and branchlets and shiny, obovate, dark green leaves. M. umbricola is assessed as having a conservation status of “Acutely Threatened (Nationally Endangered)” as it is known from few subpopulations, is restricted to a small geographic area, and appears to have recruitment failure. Myrsine divaricata A.Cunn. and M. ×montana Hook.f. are lectotypified and this hybrid is attributed to M. divaricata × M. salicina.

Hedgehog and Decapentaplegic instruct polarized growth of cell extensions in the Drosophila trachea.

The migration of cellular extensions is guided by signals from tissues with which they contact. Many axon guidance molecules regulate growth cone migration by directly regulating actin cytoskeletal dynamics. Secreted morphogens control global patterns of cell fate decisions during organogenesis through transcriptional regulation, and constitute another class of guidance molecules. We have investigated the guidance roles of the morphogens Hedgehog and Decapentaplegic during directed outgrowth of cytoplasmic extensions in the Drosophila trachea. A subset of tracheal terminal cells adheres to the internal surface of the epidermis and elongates cytoplasmic processes called terminal branches. Hedgehog promotes terminal branch spreading and its extension over the posterior compartment of the epidermis. Decapentaplegic, which is expressed at the onset of terminal branching, restricts dorsal extension of the terminal branch and ensures its monopolar growth. Orthogonal expression of Hedgehog and Decapentaplegic in the epidermis instructs monopolar extension of the terminal branch along the posterior compartment, thereby matching the pattern of airway growth with that of the epidermis.

TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE OF PILLAR, UPRIGHT, AND STANDARD FORM PEACH TREES ¿ EARLY RESULTS

Peach production in the U.S. relies on standard size trees on vigorous, seedling rootstocks grown at low-densities (<or= 297 trees/ha). Production per hectare is low. Peach tree growth habits, such as pillar (P) (columnar canopy shape) and upright (U), can be planted in high-density systems with the potential for increased production per hectare. Pillar and upright, advanced breeding selections, and standard (S) (‘Harrow Beauty’) trees on ‘Lovell’ rootstock were planted at 4 densities (135 trees/ha to 1112 trees/ha) and trained to a central leader (CL) or multiple leader (ML) form. Trees were dormant pruned and trained, then summer pruned (SP) in the first growing season after fall planting. One-half of the trees were SP in the second growing season after dormant pruning. Growth habit affected trunk and canopy size after two growing seasons. SP reduced canopy spread. Dormant CL training after one growing season required more time than ML training for all growth habits, however, the difference was greater for U and P trees (110% more time) than for S trees (39%). Branch spreading with training aids contributed to the greater training time for CL trees. Summer pruning increased light levels in the lower canopy with the greatest effect in S and U trees. Yields in the second leaf were greater for ML trained trees than CL trees. SP reduced the yield of U trees but not S or P trees. Based on these data and observations of U and P peach trees growing on a deep, well-drained fertile site, it appears that pruning and training of P and U trees to conform to a specific form may result in excessive tree vigor. Reduced early training to allow for expression of the natural growth habit may be preferable.

二酸化炭素施用がＳｏｎｅｒｉｌａ ｐｉｃｔａの生育，開花および光合成に及ぼす影響について

The effects of CO2enrichment on growth rate and flowering were investigated inSonerila picta, a Melastomataceae species. The plant height, leaf number, branch spread and root growth increased under 1200 and 2100 ppm CO2compared with those in ambient CO2 (340-450 ppm) . Flowering was advanced by 7d and number of florets per plant increased by 70% under 1200 and 2100 ppm CO2. The increase in florets under CO2enrichment may be related to increased number of mature branches and increased flowering percentage of the flower buds that differentiated on the branches. The CO2enrichment is useful to improve the growth rate and flower quality ofS. picta.

Ab initio studies of phonons in CaTiO3

Using the local-density approximation, and calculating the Hellmann–Feynman forces, the stability of the perovskite-like structures of CaTiO3 have been studied by applying the direct method and deriving the phonon dispersion relations. The cubic Pm3̄m phase shows dispersionless soft phonon branch spreading from R to M points of the cubic Brillouin zone. Low-symmetry phase I4/mcm can be considered as a result of the soft mode condensation at R point. The experimentally observed Pmnb phase is a consequence of the intersection of Imma and P4/mbm space groups, being the result of soft mode condensation at R and M points, respectively. Thus, the Pmnb can be regarded as simultaneous condensations of two soft modes. The phonon dispersion relations of Pmnb suggest that this phase is stable.

Major genomic mitochondrial lineages delineate early human expansions

BackgroundThe phylogeographic distribution of human mitochondrial DNA variations allows a genetic approach to the study of modern Homo sapiens dispersals throughout the world from a female perspective. As a new contribution to this study we have phylogenetically analysed complete mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) sequences from 42 human lineages, representing major clades with known geographic assignation.ResultsWe show the relative relationships among the 42 lineages and present more accurate temporal calibrations than have been previously possible to give new perspectives as how modern humans spread in the Old World.ConclusionsThe first detectable expansion occurred around 59,000–69,000 years ago from Africa, independently colonizing western Asia and India and, following this southern route, swiftly reaching east Asia. Within Africa, this expansion did not replace but mixed with older lineages detectable today only in Africa. Around 39,000–52,000 years ago, the western Asian branch spread radially, bringing Caucasians to North Africa and Europe, also reaching India, and expanding to north and east Asia. More recent migrations have entangled but not completely erased these primitive footprints of modern human expansions.

Ab initio study of phonons and structural stabilities of the perovskite-type

Using the local-density approximation, calculating the Hellmann-Feynman forces, applying the direct method and deriving the phonon dispersion relations, the stability of the perovskite-like structures of MgSiO3 at T =0 have been studied. The cubic Pm $$Pm\overline 3 m$$ m phase shows a dispersion-less soft phonon branch spreading from the R to M points of the cubic Brillouin zone. This soft branch persists up to high pressures of 150 GPa. The low-symmetry phases I4/mcm and Imma, P4/mbm can be considered as a result of the soft mode condensation at the M and R points, respectively. These phases prove to be unstable at T =0. The experimentally observed Pmnb phase is a consequence of the intersection of Imma and P4/mbm space groups. Thus, it can be regarded as a simultaneous condensation of two soft modes: one at the M and a second at the R high-symmetry points of the cubic Brillouin zone. The phonon dispersion relations of Pmnb show that this phase is stable and its optical phonons appear above 4.0 THz only.

Habitat‐specific genetic effects on growth rate and morphology across pH and water‐level gradients within a population of the mossSphagnum angustifolium(Sphagnaceae)

To study genetic adaptations in bryophytes on small ecological and spatial scales and to assess the adaptive significance of morphological trait variation, genotypes of Sphagnum angustifolium originating from habitats characterized by different pH and height above water table were clonally propagated and grown along the same gradients that exist in the field. Clones from ombrotrophic habitats grew consistently better ombrotrophically than clones from minerotrophic habitats and vice versa, suggesting that the genotypes were adapted to different pH levels. Genetic variation was found in several morphological traits, but habitat-specific genetic effects were detected only in length of spreading branches. Covariation between morphology and growth was generally environmentally induced. Positive and negative cross-environment genetic correlations suggested the presence of constraints on adaptive reaction norm evolution. The indications of small-scale genetic adaptations suggest either selective establishment of genotypes adapted to specific habitats, strong selective forces operating at the later stages of the life cycle, restricted gene flow over short distances, or a combination of these. In contrast to prevailing views, these results indicate that bryophytes are likely to respond genetically to small-scale environmental gradients.

Crown morphology of Norway spruce from usual tree measurements

The crown morphology of Norway spruce (Picea abies Karst) was studied from 617 sample trees. In order to model branch and crown descriptors the linear and nonlinear regression methods were extensively used. Results show that the branch length can be fairly well predicted from the distance to the apex of the tree and that the branch spread has a high correlation with the branch length and the insertion angle. Models have been set up to predict the crown ratio, height to the base of the living crown, height to the first living branch and the height to the first dead branch from the usual whole-tree measurements, namely diameter at breast height total height and total age.

The Crown Shape of an Evergreen Oak, Quercus glauca, in a Hardwood Community

The spatial pattern of the crown spread of Quercus glauca in a hardwood community was investigated in order to consider the effect of the patterns on its survival in a secondary hardwood community. The shape of a crown was defined by the spatial spread of the leaves (PCM crown), and by the spread of their branches (elliptic cylinder crown). The stem volume growth rate of a tree was strongly correlated with the corresponding total leaf area, which was then significantly correlated with the defined crown volume. This indicated that the stem volume growth depended on the crown volume as well as the total leaf area. An increase in leaf area was largely attained by the spatial volume of the crown, not by an increase in the leaf area density. The leaves inside the crown began to spread horizontally relative to the crown size as the total leaf area and tree size increased. On the other hand, for the crowns representing the branch spread, the crown shape (crown width/depth ratio) did not differ by internal leaf area and tree size. Such a spatial pattern was likely to be adaptive for a species that dominates at a mid-stage of secondary sere.

Modelling crown shape of Piceaabies: spacing effects

A model of branch length increment and inclination was developed for Piceaabies (L.) Karst. to describe the dynamics of crown shape. Four trees belonging to the provenance Istebna, from Poland, were sampled in an experimental plot where density varied continuously from 200 to 10 000 stems/ha. Sampling along the density gradient enabled us to study the effect of spacing on tree morphology and development. The model of branch extension is based on height growth and on the year of elongation of the branch. A second model describes the change in branch inclination. Branch spread increased with between-tree spacing, whereas branch inclination was affected by crown contact; competition was then divided into two components: (i) direct mechanical contact and (ii) global resource depletion. The sample trees were young (26 years), so height growth was mainly linear and the effect of apical control could not be tested. This study provides a simple model of crown shape development that can be used in a more detailed process-based model. Simulations are presented based only on height growth. For wood quality purposes, the relationship between branch diameter and branch length is provided to give access to the knottiness of the stem. The limitations of the sample are discussed in view of a more general use of these models.