Brake Response Time Research Articles

Comparison of Foot Pedal Reaction Time Among Patients with Right or Left Hemiplegia and Able-Bodied Controls

Background: Although inpatient stroke rehabilitation provides clinicians with the opportunity to prepare patients for continuation of prestroke activities, little is known about the patients’ ability to safely resume driving at the point of discharge to the community. Objective: To compare foot pedal response times of 20 stroke patients with right hemiplegia (RH) or left hemiplegia (LH) and 10 controls. Methods: A cross-sectional design was used. Response times were measured using 3 foot pedal operation techniques: (1) right-sided accelerator with right leg operating accelerator and brake, (2) right-sided accelerator with left leg operating accelerator and brake, and (3) left-sided accelerator with left leg operating accelerator and brake. Outcomes included reaction time (RT), movement time (MT), and total response time (TRT). Results: Controls demonstrated faster RT than patients with RH (263 vs 348 ms; P < .001) or LH (316 ms; P < .05) for all conditions, as well as faster MT than patients with RH (P < .05 for all) but not LH when using the right leg (258 vs 251 ms; P = .82). Controls demonstrated faster TRT than patients with RH (P < .001 for all) but not LH when using the right leg (515 vs 553 ms; P = .44). Conclusions: When using the nonparetic leg, patients with LH had braking response times comparable to controls, but patients with RH demonstrated significant impairment of both the paretic and nonparetic legs.

Drivers with Parkinson’s disease: are the symptoms of PD associated with restricted driving practices?

This study examined whether symptoms (motor, cognitive, vision, sleepiness, depression) of Parkinson's disease (PD) were associated with restricted driving practices. To quantify driving practices, electronic devices were installed in the vehicles of 27 drivers with PD (78 % men; M = 71.6, SD = 6.6; Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) motor score M = 30.1, SD = 8.6; disease duration M = 3.9, SD = 2.8 years) and 20 controls (80 % men; M = 70.6, SD = 7.9) for 2 weeks. Participants completed measures of sleepiness, depression, quality of life, and assessments of motor, cognitive and visual functions. The PD group had significantly slower brake response times (p < 0.05), poorer cognitive and quality of life scores (p < 0.01) and greater depression (p < 0.05) compared to controls. Slower reaction time was significantly related to reduced driving; specifically, fewer trips (r = -0.46; p < 0.05), distance (r = -0.54, p < 0.01) and duration at night (r = -0.58, p < 0.01). Better cognitive scores were associated with driving less often in difficult situations such as bad weather and rush hour (p < 0.05), as well as reduced speed on city streets, but only for the control group. While most drivers with PD rated their overall health as good or excellent, the five PD drivers who rated their health more poorly had significantly worse clinical symptoms (UPDRS motor scores, contrast sensitivity, depression, brake response time) and more restricted driving patterns. These findings show that drivers with PD who perceive their health poorly have greater symptomatology and were more likely to restrict their driving, possibly due to noticeable declines in multiple driving-related abilities.

“When can I return to driving?”

Clinicians are often asked by patients, "When can I drive again?" after lower limb injury or surgery. This question is difficult to answer in the absence of any guidelines. This review aims to collate the currently available evidence and discuss the factors that influence the decision to allow a patient to return to driving. Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, and EMBASE were searched using the following terms: 'brake reaction time', 'brake response time', 'braking force', 'brake pedal force', 'resume driving', 'rate of application of force', 'driving after injury', 'joint replacement and driving', and 'fracture and driving'. Of the relevant literature identified, most studies used the brake reaction time and total brake time as the outcome measures. Varying recovery periods were proposed based on the type and severity of injury or surgery. Surveys of the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency, the Police, insurance companies in the United Kingdom and Orthopaedic Surgeons offered a variety of opinions. There is currently insufficient evidence for any authoritative body to determine fitness to drive. The lack of guidance could result in patients being withheld from driving for longer than is necessary, or returning to driving while still unsafe.

Emotional and behavioural responses to auditory interfaces in commercial vehicles

In this paper, we argue that emotional reactions may guide the design of in-vehicle auditory displays since emotion has strong consequences for behaviour and information processing. A simulator study with 30 participants was conducted in which auditory icons were contrasted to abstract earcon sounds in more or less imminent collision scenarios and 3D sounds were tested against monophonic sounds in lane change scenarios. Self-report and physiological measures of emotional response as well as behavioural measures (e.g., brake response time) were used. It was found that auditory icons gave up to 600 ms faster brake response times than abstract sounds in imminent collision scenarios and that 3D sound gave a stronger emotional response in lane change scenarios. Moreover, the results indicate that emotion can predict behaviour, e.g., sounds rated as being more activating and negative also gave quicker response times.

S181013 横からの飛び出し車両に対するドライバの衝突回避操作に関する実車実験結果([S181]交通事故回避支援技術の開発とその課題)

This paper analyzes the driver's collision avoidance behavior in an emergency. Experiments, in which participants drove a test vehicle at around 40km/h and a dummy vehicle suddenly appeared from the side, were conducted on a proving ground. Two out of 56 participants could not respond to the emergency situation, that is, they did not apply the brakes. The driver behaviors were analyzed, for example, it was revealed that average brake response time was 0.45 seconds and average deceleration after braking was 7.0 m/s^2.

Investigating driving behaviour of older drivers with mild cognitive impairment using a portable driving simulator

While there is a large body of research indicating that individuals with moderate to severe dementia are unfit to drive, relatively little is known about the driving performance of older drivers with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The aim of the current study was to examine the driving performance of older drivers with MCI on approach to intersections, and to investigate how their healthy counterparts perform on the same driving tasks using a portable driving simulator. Fourteen drivers with MCI and 14 age-matched healthy older drivers (aged 65–87 years) completed a 10-min simulator drive in an urban environment. The simulator drive consisted of stop-sign controlled and signal-controlled intersections. Drivers were required to stop at the stop-sign controlled intersections and to decide whether or not to proceed through a critical light change at the signal-controlled intersections. The specific performance measures included; approach speed, number of brake applications on approach to the intersection (either excessive or minimal), failure to comply with stop signs, and slower braking response times on approach to a critical light change. MCI patients in our sample performed more poorly than controls across a number of variables. However, because the trends failed to reach statistical significance it will be important to replicate the study using a larger sample to qualify whether the results can be generalised to the broader population.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Driver Behavior to Establish Parameters for Timing of Yellow Change and Red Clearance Intervals

In 2009, NCHRP Project 03–95 sought to develop a comprehensive, uniform set of recommended guidelines for determining safe and operationally efficient yellow change and red clearance (i.e., all-red) intervals at signalized intersections. Before guideline development, a comprehensive field study of driver behavior was performed to establish the three primary parameters found in a commonly used kinematic equation (the ITE equation): perception–reaction time, deceleration rate, and approach speed. To provide broad nationwide representation of driver characteristics, site conditions, and traffic signal timing practices, 83 study approaches were evenly selected from four regions of the United States: Southeast Michigan, Central Florida, Southern California, and Greater Washington, D.C. Driver behavior data were collected at each site with an elevated high-definition video camera. The resulting data set included 2,458 first-to-stop dilemma zone vehicles that were less than 5.5 s upstream of the intersection at the start of the yellow interval. The study's overall mean brake response time of 1.00 s was identical to ITE's recommended default value of 1.0 s for timing of the yellow interval, and the overall mean deceleration rate of 10.08 ft/s2 was very close to ITE's recommended deceleration rate of 10 ft/s2. The study determined that the 85th percentile speed of free-flowing through-moving vehicles approaching a signalized intersection may be accurately estimated by adding 7 miles per hour (mph) to the posted speed limit on the approach. Similarly, the 85th percentile approach speed for free-flowing left-turning vehicles may be accurately estimated by subtracting 5 mph from the posted speed limit.

Effects of Secondary Tasks on Vehicle Speed and Distance during Driving and Brake Response Time during Unexpected Situation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the secondary tasks such as sending text message(STM) and searching navigation(SN) on vehicle speed and distance during driving and brake response time during unexpected situation using a driving simulator. The participants included 19 college students; 9 males aged 25.2±1.0 with 2.4±2.0years of driving experiences and 10 females aged 21.4±0.5 with 1.3±0.5years of driving experiences. All subjects were instructed to keep a certain distance(30m) from the car ahead and a constant speed(100㎞/h). Average speed and average following distance were measured during 10 seconds before unexpected situation. Also, brake response time after unexpected situation was measured. Average speed was more decreased and average following distance was more increased during the driving with secondary tasks than driving only. Male maintained the assigned speed and distance better than female. The brake response time was faster during driving only than the driving with secondary tasks. And the brake response time of male was shorter than that of female.

Modelling an electropneumatic brake system for commercial vehicles

The safety of vehicles on roadways depends, among other things, on a properly operating brake system. Commercial vehicles such as trucks and buses are equipped with an air brake system that uses compressed air as the energy-transmitting medium. The brake response time is a critical parameter that affects the stopping distance of a vehicle. The existing air brake system in a commercial vehicle has mechanically operated valves and pneumatic hoses that are used to transfer the compressed air from the storage reservoir to the foundation brake. Replacing the mechanical valves with electronically operated regulators and reducing the pneumatic lines will potentially reduce the brake response time thereby providing a reduced stopping distance. This study focuses on the development and mathematical modelling of an electropneumatic brake system for commercial vehicles. A mathematical model that correlates the pressure transients in the brake chamber to the voltage input provided to the electropneumatic brake has been developed. The efficacy of this model is tested by comparing its results with experimental data for various test runs. This mathematical model will be used towards model-based control and fault diagnosis of the electropneumatic brake.

Simulator Study of Effects of Alternative Distraction Mitigation Strategies in Driver Workload Manager

This simulator study examined a workload manager developed by Delphi Electronics for the SAVE-IT program and the effects of several different workload mitigation strategies on driver response to a surprise forward collision hazard. The strategies included no in-vehicle task or distraction (baseline); task allowed; task interrupted; and task denied. Forty-eight test participants (24 males and 24 females) between 35 and 55 years of age were randomly assigned in groups of 12 (balanced for gender) to each of the four conditions. Each participant then drove in the Ford VIRTTEX moving-base driving simulator on simulated urban and rural roads and was asked to perform various in-vehicle tasks. During a requested in-vehicle information system task, a vehicle parked on the side of the road would suddenly enter the travel lane, and the driver's response was assessed. Braking response to this critical event indicated no significant differences in mean brake response time as a function of type of mitigation strategy or gender. However, variability in driver responses was significantly less in the task denied condition as compared with the other conditions, possibly because drivers were sensitized to an increased driving demand. Three of 12 test participants in the task interrupted condition showed relatively large brake reaction times attributable to long delays between initial foot motion and braking onset. This delay may indicate an additional delay associated with processing the task interruption and the forward collision warning event itself. Recommendations are provided for further research and for mitigation and driver alerting on the basis of a workload manager's assessment of the driving situation.

The Effect of Immobilization Devices and Left-Foot Adapter on Brake-Response Time

The ability to perform an emergency stop is essential for safe driving and can be represented by total brake-response time, reaction time, and braking time. Immobilization of the lower extremities is routinely performed for a variety of musculoskeletal conditions. This study sought to investigate the effect of immobilization with a left-foot driving adapter, a controlled-ankle-motion device, and a short leg cast on braking times. Our hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference in braking-time values between individuals utilizing a left-foot driving adapter or immobilization device and control individuals wearing normal footwear. A prospective, observational study was conducted to assess the effect of the immobilization devices on braking times. A driving simulator was used to assess total brake-response time, reaction time, and braking time in thirty-five volunteers. Volunteers were assessed while (1) wearing normal footwear (control group), (2) wearing a controlled-ankle-motion boot, (3) wearing a removable short leg cast, and (4) employing a left-foot driving adapter. The mean total brake-response time was significantly increased as compared with that of the control group in all three study groups. The mean reaction time was significantly increased for the short leg cast and controlled-ankle-motion groups as compared with reaction time in the control group. The mean braking time was significantly increased in the controlled-ankle-motion and left-foot driving-adapter groups as compared with braking time in the control group. Total brake-response time while wearing a controlled-ankle-motion boot or a short leg cast or while utilizing a left-foot driving adapter is significantly increased, or worsened, as compared with the response time while wearing normal footwear. This information may prove valuable to physicians when counseling patients on when it may be safe to return to driving.

Commentary on an article by MAJ Justin Orr, MD, et al.: “The Effect of Immobilization Devices and Left-Foot Adapter on Brake-Response Time”

There is in the orthopaedic community increasing interest in how to accurately determine when a patient who has undergone surgery or has recovered from a musculoskeletal condition may return to driving in a safe manner. This decision can carry major implications with regard to patient and public safety and traditionally has been based on clinical judgment rather than clinical data. Physician recommendations have been highly variable1 and have been made primarily on the basis of individual physician experience and knowledge of the patient’s limitations and injuries. Recommendations are usually offered with the implicit understanding that compliance is, ultimately, the patient’s responsibility. Furthermore, without standardized guidelines or hard clinical data to support it, the orthopaedist’s recommendation on when the patient can safely return to driving is often met with opposition by the patient and is rarely definitive, often resulting in a “negotiation” that reaches a mutually acceptable compromise between physician and patient. Recently, various factors have increased practitioner awareness of the difficulty in making the decision and the potential implications of an improper recommendation regarding when a patient can return to driving. These factors include the perception of a more uncertain medico-legal environment1,2, recognition of the highly variable legislation from state to state3, an ever-decreasing patient-physician interaction time in the clinical setting (resulting in a decreased ability to judge a patient’s ability to drive), and an expanding population of aging patients who are often reluctant to give up the freedoms afforded by …

Brake response time before and after total knee arthroplasty: a prospective cohort study.

BackgroundAlthough the numbers of total knee arthroplasty (TKA) are increasing, there is only a small number of studies investigating driving safety after TKA. The parameter 'Brake Response Time (BRT)' is one of the most important criteria for driving safety and was therefore chosen for investigation.The present study was conducted to test the hypotheses that patients with right- or left-sided TKA show a significant increase in BRT from pre-operative (pre-op, 1 day before surgery) to post-operative (post-op, 2 weeks post surgery), and a significant decrease in BRT from post-op to the follow-up investigation (FU, 8 weeks post surgery). Additionally, it was hypothesized that the BRT of patients after TKA is significantly higher than that of healthy controls.Methods31 of 70 consecutive patients (mean age 65.7 +/- 10.2 years) receiving TKA were tested for their BRT pre-op, post-op and at FU. BRT was assessed using a custom-made driving simulator. We used normative BRT data from 31 healthy controls for comparison.ResultsThere were no significant increases between pre-op and post-op BRT values for patients who had undergone left- or right-sided TKA. Even the proportion of patients above a BRT threshold of 700 ms was not significantly increased postop. Controls had a BRT which was significantly better than the BRT of patients with right- or left-sided TKA at all three time points.ConclusionThe present study showed a small and insignificant postoperative increase in the BRT of patients who had undergone right- or left-sided TKA. Therefore, we believe it is not justified to impair the patient's quality of social and occupational life post-surgery by imposing restrictions on driving motor vehicles beyond an interval of two weeks after surgery.

Effects of Working Memory Load and Repeated Scenario Exposure on Emergency Braking Performance

The objective of the present study was to examine the effect of working memory load on drivers' responses to a suddenly braking lead vehicle and whether this effect (if any) is moderated by repeated scenario exposure. Several experimental studies have found delayed braking responses to lead vehicle braking events during concurrent performance of nonvisual, working memory-loading tasks, such as hands-free phone conversation. However, the common use of repeated, and hence somewhat expected, braking events may undermine the generalizability of these results to naturalistic, unexpected, emergency braking scenarios. A critical lead vehicle braking scenario was implemented in a fixed-based simulator.The effects of working memory load and repeated scenario exposure on braking performance were examined. Brake response time was decomposed into accelerator pedal release time and accelerator-to-brake pedal movement time. Accelerator pedal release times were strongly reduced with repeated scenario exposure and were delayed by working memory load with a small but significant amount (178 ms).The two factors did not interact. There were no effects on accelerator-to-brake pedal movement time. The results suggest that effects of working memory load on response performance obtained from repeated critical lead vehicle braking scenarios may be validly generalized to real world unexpected events. The results have important implications for the interpretation of braking performance in experimental settings, in particular in the context of safety-related evaluation of in-vehicle information and communication technologies.

When Can I Drive?: Brake Response Times After Contemporary Total Knee Arthroplasty

After right total knee arthroplasty (TKA), patients are usually eager to return to driving. Previous studies suggest 6 weeks postsurgery is a safe time. However, recent advances in surgical technique, pain management, and rehabilitation have theoretically improved recovery after TKA. We therefore determined if (1) the timeframe for return to driving, as determined by attainment of preoperative braking levels, would be shorter after contemporary right TKA than that reported previously for a traditional TKA; and (2) gender or age influence recovery of baseline response time. Brake response times for all 29 patients undergoing right-sided TKA between January 17, 2008, and January 29, 2009, were scheduled to be measured by a trained occupational therapist before surgery and at 4, 6, and 8 weeks after surgery. For each patient, testing was discontinued once the preoperative level was achieved. All patients returned to baseline braking levels by 4 weeks after surgery. Gender and age did not influence recovery times. If other requirements for driving are met, surgeons may consider allowing patients treated with contemporary right TKAs to drive 4 weeks after surgery.

Does the prolonged attentional blink to emotional stimuli affect driving performance?

The attentional blink is a temporary delay in responding to a second stimulus in a stream after attending to the first. Recent investigations suggest the duration of the attentional blink is longer after viewing pictures with a negative emotional valence (Most, Chen, & Widders, 2005) though this effect has never been demonstrated in a day-to-day task. This study investigated whether this extended attentional blink would have an impact on driving performance. Participants were tested in a DriveSafety DS-600c driving simulator (a full car body surrounded by six viewing screens that immersed drivers in a 300 degree wrap-around virtual driving environment). They were required to drive down a virtual highway, following a lead vehicle. During the 75 minute drive they were exposed to high and low arousal pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS: Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2001), pictures that had either a positive or negative emotional valence. In most cases, participants would simply be required to indicate whether the picture was positive or negative while lane keeping performance was assessed. However, occasionally the lead-vehicle would brake unexpectedly, forcing the participant to brake. Braking response times after positive and negative pictures were compared to those in a baseline (no picture) control condition. Results have practical implications as they relate to the enhanced collision risk that may occur as the result of upsetting images displayed on billboards or on in-vehicle entertainment devices (e.g., onboard DVD players).

Auditory Displays as Occasion Setters

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether representational sounds that capture the richness of experience of a collision enhance performance in braking to avoid a collision relative to other forms of warnings in a driving simulator. There is increasing interest in auditory warnings that are informative about their referents. But as well as providing information about some intended object, warnings may be designed to set the occasion for a rich body of information about the outcomes of behavior in a particular context. These richly informative warnings may offer performance advantages, as they may be rapidly processed by users. An auditory occasion setter for a collision (a recording of screeching brakes indicating imminent collision) was compared with two other auditory warnings (an abstract and an "environmental" sound), a speech message, a visual display, and no warning in a fixed-base driving simulator as interfaces to a collision avoidance system. The main measure was braking response times at each of two headways (1.5 s and 3 s) to a lead vehicle. The occasion setter demonstrated statistically significantly faster braking responses at each headway in 8 out of 10 comparisons (with braking responses equally fast to the abstract warning at 1.5 s and the environmental warning at 3 s). Auditory displays that set the occasion for an outcome in a particular setting and for particular behaviors may offer small but critical performance enhancements in time-critical applications. The occasion setter could be applied in settings where speed of response by users is of the essence.

Dilemma Zone Driver Behavior as a Function of Vehicle Type, Time of Day, and Platooning

A comprehensive investigation of the influence of vehicle type on various aspects of dilemma zone driver behavior, including brake response time, deceleration rate, and red light running occurrence, was performed at six urban or suburban signalized intersections in Wisconsin. Driver behavior data were obtained for 1,275 vehicles that were between 2.0 and 6.5 s upstream of the intersection at the onset of the yellow interval. Each vehicular observation was classified into one of five vehicle type categories: motorcycle, car, light truck (pickup, SUV, van, minivan), single-unit truck (single-unit heavy truck, delivery truck, recreation vehicle, bus), and tractor trailer (multiunit heavy truck). Each observation was also classified by time of day and whether the subject vehicle was part of a platoon. Vehicle type had a statistically significant effect on deceleration rate and red light running occurrence but did not have an effect on brake response time. Deceleration rates were highest for cars and light trucks; single-unit trucks and tractor trailers showed the lowest deceleration rates. Tractor trailers were 3.6 times more likely and single-unit trucks were 2.5 times more likely to commit red light running compared with passenger vehicles. The rates of red light running for cars and light trucks were not substantially different from each other. Time of day (peak versus off-peak) had a statistically significant effect on both deceleration rate and occurrence of red light running. Deceleration rates were significantly higher during off-peak times. Red light running was 1.3 times more likely to occur during peak periods compared with off-peak periods. Platooning had no effect on any of the measures of effectiveness.

Influence of Presbyopic Corrections on Driving-Related Eye and Head Movements

To investigate whether wearing different presbyopic vision corrections alters the pattern of eye and head movements when viewing and responding to driving-related traffic scenes. Participants included 20 presbyopes (mean age: 56.1 +/- 5.7 years) who had no experience of wearing presbyopic vision corrections, apart from single vision (SV) reading spectacles. Each participant wore five different vision corrections: distance SV lenses, progressive addition spectacle lenses (PAL), bifocal spectacle lenses (BIF), monovision (MV) and multifocal contact lenses (MTF CL). For each visual condition, participants were required to view videotape recordings of traffic scenes, track a reference vehicle, and identify a series of peripherally presented targets. Digital numerical display panels were also included as near visual stimuli (simulating the visual displays of a vehicle speedometer and radio). Eye and head movements were measured, and the accuracy of target recognition was also recorded. The path length of eye movements while viewing and responding to driving-related traffic scenes was significantly longer when wearing BIF and PAL than MV and MTF CL (both p < or = 0.013). The path length of head movements was greater with SV, BIF, and PAL than MV and MTF CL (all p < 0.001). Target recognition and brake response times were not significantly affected by vision correction, whereas target recognition was less accurate when the near stimulus was located at eccentricities inferiorly and to the left, rather than directly below the primary position of gaze (p = 0.008), regardless of vision correction. Different presbyopic vision corrections alter eye and head movement patterns. The longer path length of eye and head movements and greater number of saccades associated with the spectacle presbyopic corrections may affect some aspects of driving performance.

Driver Reaction Time to Tactile and Auditory Rear-End Collision Warnings While Talking on a Cell Phone

This study examined the effectiveness of rear-end collision warnings presented in different sensory modalities while drivers were engaged in cell phone conversations in a driving simulator. Tactile and auditory collision warnings have been shown to improve braking response time (RT) in rear-end collision situations. However, it is not clear how effective these warnings are when the driver is engaged in attentionally demanding secondary tasks, such as talking on a cell phone. Sixteen participants in a driving simulator experienced three collision warning conditions (none, tactile, and auditory) in three conversation conditions (none, simple hands free, complex hands free). Driver RT was captured from warning onset to brake initiation (WON2B). WON2B times for auditory warnings were significantly larger for simple conversations compared with no conversation (+148 ms), whereas there was no significant difference between these conditions for tactile warnings (+53 ms). For complex conversations, WON2B times for both tactile (+146 ms) and auditory warnings (+221 ms) were significantly larger than during no conversation. During complex conversations, tactile warnings produced significantly shorter WON2B times than no warning (-141 ms). Tactile warnings are more effective than auditory warnings during both simple and complex conversations. These results indicate that tactile rear-end collision warnings have the potential to offset some of the driving impairments caused by cell phone conversations.