Brain Wave Activity Research Articles

Creativity and Higher States of Consciousness

Dream reality and artist-created virtual reality, combined with the reality we perceive as physical, form three realities of human experience. Taking this into account, primary senses seem incomplete without extrasensory senses, which allow access to higher states of consciousness. Artists sometimes use those states as the source of creativity, inspiration, and ideas.The real-time neurofeedback shows brainwave activity in the theta frequency range in a creativity-related Hypnagogic state. Alpha and delta frequencies are also creativity-related. Alpha is observed during the inspiration stage of creative thinking, while theta occurs during transcendental meditation and deep sleep. Neurofeedback is also used to create works of art. Higher states of consciousness-inducing techniques include dream machines, mind machines, binaural beats, hallucinogenic drugs, and most advantageous – float tanks. Holistic methods like meditation, hypnotherapy, and energy healing are also helpful. Meditation seems to be the most effective, with the ability to control lucid dreaming and out-of-body experiences to an extent.The generation of creative ideas is a phenomenon that defies scientific explanation. The author’s experiences in higher states of consciousness in art, meditation, and energy healing, make him confident that higher states of consciousness are legitimate sources of creativity and essential to the overall health of body, mind, and soul.

Effects of Binaural Beats on Mood and Cognition

Our brain constantly processes various acoustic stimulus, these stimuli consciously and subconsciously affecting us in everyday life. One of the most common acoustic stimuli that has been consciously used in many settings is music and its effect has been demonstrated and explained over the years with various sci entific research. In recent years, new acoustic stimuli, binaural beats started gaining a place in our lives. People started using these auditory signals to relax, sleep and even meditate. This study took a closer look at the effects of binaural beats on human mood states, emotions and cognition. Changes in the brain wave activity under theta, alpha and beta binaural beats were investigated using electroencephalogram (EEG). Experiment is conducted as fully between design where volunteers only listened to one of the three binaural beat conditions: Theta binaural beats (7 Hz), alpha binaural beats (10 Hz), and beta binaural beats (16 Hz). EEG and Mood questionnaire(PANAS-S) data is collected, and EEG data is analyzed in the frequency domain. Changes in relative power spectral density (PSD) of theta, alpha, and beta bands are calculated to draw meaningful conclusions.

SPECIAL ISSUE: Do Biofeedback, Neurofeedback, and Neuromeditation Have a Role in Psychedelic-Assisted Therapies?

SPECIAL ISSUE: Do Biofeedback, Neurofeedback, and Neuromeditation Have a Role in Psychedelic-Assisted Therapies?

Sleep EEG as a Tool for Exploring Mechanisms of Schizophrenia

Despite the extensive neuroimaging research investigating the neurodevelopmental mechanisms of schizophrenia, to date we have a limited understanding about how schizophrenia develops. Feinberg’s (1982) popular neurodevelopmental model proposes that excessive synaptic pruning during adolescence as indexed by the loss of delta brain-wave activity (EEG) in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep may underlie the pathophysiology to schizophrenia. Several studies have shown that the amplitude and incidence of delta wave EEG are disrupted in stage 3 sleep in schizophrenia. However, little research has investigated sleep EEG in adolescents who are at high risk for transitioning into psychosis. The current paper reviews recent longitudinal findings documenting the normal rate of delta EEG changes over the childhood and adolescent periods and proposes a sleep EEG study that can help inform how schizophrenia develops in adolescence.

A low- dose of caffeine suppresses EEG alpha power and improves working memory in healthy University males

The effects of a low dose of caffeine, administered in the morning, on brain wave activity and cognitive function were investigated in 25 healthy university Southeast Asian men (mean age ±standard deviation: 21 ± 2 years). Participants received a placebo (PLA) or a 50 mg caffeinated drink (CAF) under randomized, double-blind crossover conditions, with 1 week between conditions. Brain wave activity was assessed using electroencephalography (EEG) from a 5 min eyes-closed resting state. Cognitive function, i.e., visuomotor processing speed, working memory, and attention were assessed using the trail-making test A (Trails A) and B (Trails B), and digit span Forwards (DF), respectively. All tests were examined before drinking (BD), 30 min after drinking (AD), and 35 min after 5-min isokinetic exercise (AE). [Results] The CAF showed a significant decrease in the percentage changes from baseline (%∆) of alpha wave activity over the midline electrodes, i.e., frontal, central, and occipital areas after AD (p<0.05). Data from cognitive function tests were significantly improved after AD (p<0.05). A significant inverse correlation between the diminished alpha wave activity over the midline central and occipital cortical regions and the Trails B positive scores were observed (p<0.05). [Conclusion] The diminishment in resting alpha wave activity and improvement of cognitive function on working memory assessed by the Trails B following caffeine consumption would support the stimulant effects of low-dose caffeine as a morning wake-up drink in young adults.

Effects of virtual reality on creativity performance and perceived immersion: A study of brain waves

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to explore the effects of virtual reality (VR) application on creative performance and immersion, evaluated through electroencephalography brain wave data to achieve accurate and robust results. In this study, 72 middle school teachers were recruited as participants, and a non‐randomized control‐group pre‐test–post‐test design was employed. The experimental group received VR‐based design instruction, and the control group received lecture‐based design training. Our results revealed that VR significantly affects immersion, especially with regard to attention. Additionally, VR had a positive effect on the feasibility of the creative process, although its effects on variety and novelty were inconclusive. VR was significantly correlated with theta, beta, and gamma brain wave activity. VR also increased attention‐related and meditation‐related brain wave activity and desynchronized alpha waves.Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic VR is used in many areas. VR in education is getting more important day after day. What this paper adds VR significantly affects immersion, especially with regard to attention. VR had a positive effect on the feasibility of the creative process, although its effects on variety and novelty were inconclusive. VR was significantly correlated with theta, beta, and gamma brain wave activity. VR also increased attention‐related and meditation‐related brain wave activity and desynchronized alpha waves. Implications for practice and/or policy User lack of familiarity with VR may also have influenced the results; more VR learning materials should be provided for learners. In addition to using a larger sample, future studies should focus on creative novelty when developing VR content to improve creative processes and outcomes. Familiarizing learners with the use of VR could effectively reduce the cognitive load, as well as contribute to the stimulation of creative brain waves.

Detection of Ischemic Stroke Tissue Fate from the MRI Images Using a Deep Learning Approach

The ability to determine infarction thickness using magnetic resonance perfusion modulated imaging (PWI) should assist physicians to decide how vigorously to treat severe stroke victims. Algorithms for predicting tissue fate have indeed been created, although they are largely based on hand-crafted characteristics extracted from perfusion pictures, which seem to be susceptible to background subtraction approaches. Researchers show how deep convolution neural networks (CNNs) can be used to predict final stroke infarction thickness only using primary perfusion data throughout this paper. The number of recoverable tissues determines the alternative treatments for patients with acute ischemic stroke. The accuracy of this measurement technique is currently restricted by a set threshold and limited imagining paradigms. The values collection from real-time sensors was used to create and evaluate this suggested deep learning-based stroke illness statistical method. Several deep-learning systems (CNN-LSTM, LSTM, and CNN-Bidirectional LSTM) that specialize in time series analysis prediction and classification were analyzed and compared. These findings show that noninvasive technologies that can simply measure brainwave activity by itself can forecast and track stroke illnesses in real-time throughout ordinary life are feasible. When compared with the previous measuring approaches, these findings are predicted to lead to considerable improvements in early stroke diagnosis at a lower cost and with less inconvenience.

A Case Report of Wernicke’s Encephalopathy Disguised As Limbic Encephalitis: A Clinical Puzzle

Wernicke's encephalopathy (WE) is the presence of neurological symptoms in the central nervous system caused by thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency. It is an acute clinical condition characterized by confusion, ataxia, and ophthalmoplegia triad. WE is most commonly observed in chronic alcohol users, while it can also present in non-alcoholics. We present a 33-year-old man with alcohol-induced WE who presented with altered mental status and fever. His initial diagnosis was skewed towards bacterial meningitis and limbic encephalitis, but MRI findings were consistent with WE. The patient responded promptly to intravenous (IV) thiamine infusion, and his mental status changed significantly. Repeat EEG in 15 days shows complete recovery with normal brain wave activity. Untreated WE is a significant cause of permanent neurological morbidity and mortality, easily preventable. High suspicion of WE should always be entertained, especially when patients have a known history of alcohol use. Early initiation of IV thiamine could prevent the consequences. Hence, it is essential to raise awareness of WE to take measures without delay and reduce mortality and morbidity with an improved prognosis.

Analyses of the Effects of Humanities Education on Brain Waves of the Frontal, Parietal, and Temporal Regions

This study was conducted targeting college students majoring in science and engineering, who were divided into an experimental group who took a humanities course and a control group who did not. After the experimental group took a humanities course, the brain wave activity of the frontal, parietal, temporal, and central regions of the two groups was measured using electroencephalography systems, and the electroencephalogram (EEG) waveforms of the anterior cerebrum were comparatively analyzed. A total of 67 subjects participated in the experiment, with 36 in the experimental group and 31 in the control group. According to the International 10-20 system, an international standard for EEG measurement, 7 electrodes (Cz, F3, F4, P3, P4, T3, T4) were attached to the cerebral scalp, and 2 reference electrodes were attached to both earlobes. These were attached after adjusting the resistance to the minimum value. The experimental group took a humanities course called "Understanding Beauty" for two hours twice a week over a period of 15 weeks. This course aimed to develop students’ imaginations to overcome a fact-centered world. After each lecture, the experimental group was asked to sit in a comfortable position with their eyes closed in a dark and quiet environment, and EEG measurements were started when their brain waveforms became stable. EEG measurements were also taken for the control group who did not take the course, at the same time and in the same manner. The measurements were conducted for about 10 minutes. The pattern in EEG changes between the two groups over time was analyzed by dividing them into alpha waves (8-13 Hz), theta waves (4-8 Hz), and beta waves (13-3 Hz). Based on the analysis results, for relative alpha waves, the difference between the mean vectors of all 7 variables was significant depending on the treatment (lecture attendance) (F(7, 59)=11.790, p&lt;0.001). The variation over time between the experimental and control groups was significant (F(21,45)=3.575, p&lt;0.001), indicating that there was an interaction effect between repeated measures and the groups. For relative beta waves, the difference between the mean vectors of all 7 variables was significant depending on the treatment (F(7, 59)=12.628, p&lt;0.001). The variation over time between the two groups was significant (F(21,45)=3.388, p&lt;0.001), suggesting that there was an interaction effect between repeated measures and the groups. For relative theta waves, the difference between the mean vectors of all 7 variables was significant depending on the treatment (F(7, 59)=5.301, p&lt;0.001). The variation over time between the two groups was significant (F(21,45)=3.388, p&lt;0.001), which means that there was an interaction effect between repeated measures and the groups.

Electroencephalogram Detection for Insomnia Patients: A Preliminary Study

Measurement of insomnia is currently generally carried out by medical practitioners by looking at the patient's condition accompanied by symptoms that refer to insomnia. In contrast, minimal quantitative measurements were found. This study proposes an alternative measurement with the acquisition of brainwave activity through electroencephalogram (EEG) in identifying sleep disorders. Insomnia is a common sleep disorder that can make it difficult to fall asleep difficult to stay asleep, or cause waking up too early and not being able to go back to sleep. Insomnia not only weakens energy levels and moods, but also a person's health, performance, and quality of life. This sleep disorder appears due to several factors, such as anxiety, stress, depression, bipolar disorder, or trauma. Photic stimulation is given as an attempt to find a person's body's response to light. Late adolescents with insomnia symptoms with an age range of 17-25 years were included as respondents, had previously been given a simulation test related to the treatment of sleep disorders, and identified severe, moderate, and mild insomnia. Acquisition using Narosky Mindwave Mobile 2 with the electrode in forehead position, Fp1. This study compares several types of insomnia data acquisition from previous studies and obtains patterns of insomniacs based on photic stimulation.

Neuromonitoring in Neurosurgery : An imperative redemption

With the refinement in biomedical gadgetry, it has been a modern day requisite to safeguard the indigenous neuro-architecture and henceforth foretell the postoperative neurological outcome. The intraoperative neuro-physiological monitoring (IONM) comes as no surprise to be the only credible paradigm which can cluethe standing of neural pathway directly during general anesthesia. By engaging with the IONM appliance, the operating surgeon can acknowledge the risk of injury to critical neural structure while dealing with the pathology within its vicinity. Based on the province of the encephalon, a disparate methods of IONM such as MEP, SSEP, ABR, VEP, BCR, AMR etc have unfolded over time. Intraoperative monitoring of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) has been believed to be advantageousin preventing postoperative motor dysfunction while coping up with aneurysmal surgery involving the internal carotid artery (ICA) and middle cerebral artery (MCA) and resection of tumor near sensorimotor areas or corticospinal tract.3–6The fundamental essence of MEP monitoring is based on the detection of a pyramidal tract insult expressed as a decrease of the amplitude of the waveform elicited by electrical stimulation. Conversely, Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs) embraces a series of wave forms that emulate sequential activation of neural structures along the somatosensory pathways.7 The representative stimulation sites classically used for clinical diagnostic in the course of SSEPs studies are the median nerve at the wrist, the common peroneal nerve at the knee, and the posterior tibial nerve at the ankle. Over and above that, SSEPs have been used as an indicator of cerebral ischemia during CEA, although far less commonly and as a surrogate alternative to EEG. SSEPs primarily gauge the integrity of the dorsal (sensory) column of the spinal cord. It furnishes with the real-time examination of spinal tracts at risk during surgical manipulation of the spinal cord such as spinal tumor and pedicle screw instrumentation. Likewise, Auditory brainstem response (ABR) is a test which can assess the brain wave activity and diagnose dysfunctions of the auditory pathways within the auditory nerve and brainstem that occurs in response to an stimuli with clicks or certain tones.8This is notably useful in the surgery of CP angle tumor such as vestibular schwannoma, Microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm and trigeminal neuralgia. In any neurosurgical endeavour, where a visual field impairment is contemplated during the intraoperative period, the monitoring of flash visual evoked potential (VEP) comes as a rescue to evaluate the state of visual function.9This manoeuvre is explicitly virtuous while performing tumorectomy at the optic chiasm of pituitary adenomas, craniopharyngiomas, tuberculum sellae meningiomas, and other tumors; the removal of brain tumors from the optic pathway and structures in its vicinity such as the optic nerve, optic radiation, and occipital lobe; and clip ligation of aneurysm involving the internal carotid artery, which strike a pose of risking injury and impeding blood flow to the ophthalmic artery.9 Monitoring intraoperative flash visual evoked potentials (VEPs) estimate the functionality of the optic pathway from the retina to the visual cortical area, and hence allows visual impairment to be avoided or minimized. The bulbocavernosus reflex (BCR) is anillustrious somatic reflex that is convenient in gaining information about the state of the sacral spinal cord segments.10 When present, it is indicative of an intact spinal reflex arcs (S2–S4 spinal segments) with afferent and efferent nerves through the pudendal nerve. BCR is of the greatest utility for the monitoring of sacral function in detethering of the tethered cord syndrome.11 A surface electrode is used to electrically stimulate the pudendal afferent fibers at the clitoris or penis and recording of the analogous triggered EMG in external anal sphincter using a subdermal needle electrode. The abnormal muscle response (AMR), which is also known as lateral pread response, is adopted in the microvascular decompression (MVD) for hemifacial spasm.12A complete disappearance of AMR after a convincing MVD from root exit zone implicate a postoperative disappearance of the hemifacial spasm. Nonetheless, the persistence of the AMR does not mean incomplete MVD.

124 MEGAbIT – the role of OPM MEG in assessment and diagnosis In mTBI

Can those with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) be differentiated from non-head injured orthopaedic trauma controls by measuring brain wave activity? These are the preliminary data from MEGAbIT, a MRC Confidence in Concept funded study. Clinical Trials reference:NCT03867513Whilst most individuals with mTBI recover, a significant proportion have persistent difficulties. These patients have normal routine scans, and consequently a biomarker to understand the neuropathology underly- ing these symptoms is lacking. We have combined ultrahigh field 7T MRI with magnetoencephalography (MEG), to look for structural and functional abnormalities in acute mTBI. Following a systematic review of the MEG mTBI literature, we established that the most robust finding is increased power in the delta frequency band following mTBI. So far, in our study, 10 of the 13 mTBI participants have shown this abnormality.Comparisons of spectral power between the mTBI cohort and controls in other frequency bands were less sensitive biomarkers of mTBI. Full analysis to be presented will include assessment of whole-brain con- nectivity using amplitude envelope correlation, structural damage using high-resolution susceptibility weighted imaging and structural connectivity using diffusion tensor imaging. Our results are in keeping with publications suggesting that MEG can detect mTBI abnormalities when structural imaging is normal.christopher.allen@nottingham.ac.uk

An open-label, single-arm pilot study of tocotrienols supplementation on improving memory and attention in healthy young adults

• Supplementation of tocotrienols enhanced attention in healthy subjects. • Supplementation of tocotrienols significantly improved memory in healthy subjects. • Tocotrienols increased neural efficiency of subjects, as evidenced by EEG analysis. • Tocotrienols acts as a potential nootropic in improving cognitive performance. This study aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of tocotrienols (T3) supplementation on one’s attention and memory. Eleven healthy subjects were enrolled to receive placebo followed by T3 in 6 weeks. Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVT) and Digit Span Test (DST) were used to access subjects’ sustained attention and working memory. Electroencephalogram (EEG) was used to examine the brainwave activity. T3 supplementation significantly improved the memory of the subjects in relative to the baseline as measured by average mean span for forward and reverse DST. Notably, a significant memory enhancement for T3 over placebo was observed. Subjects who consumed T3 have shown faster reaction as compared to placebo as assessed by PVT. T3 supplementation showed an overall reduction in alpha and low-beta power in comparison to placebo, indicating T3 promoted a higher neural efficacy. T3 supplementation may act as a potential nootropic in improving the mental performance and cognitive activity.

Brainwaves Activities during Resting State: A Neurofeedback Case Study

Neurofeedback training (NFT) on a healthy participant was used to analyse brainwave activity during resting state. Electrodes were placed on the prefrontal cortex and at reference sites to conduct the experiment. The patient was asked to remain still and rest by sitting in a chair. The technology was then used to record the electrical waves emitted by brain activities. After ten cycles with a break interval, theta, alpha, and high beta brainwaves were discovered. There were statistically significant brainwaves in the prefrontal cortex. Remarkably, the ascending high beta oscillation range was the highest, while the alpha wave was the lowest, contradicting earlier results. Anxiety, excitement, and focus were thought to be associated with the highest range of high beta waves.

Neurofeedback (NFB) Training in Aspergers

The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is increasing globally. Due to its high incidence rate reported globally, ASD should be considered as a public health emergency that requires immediate attention to the process of screening, diagnosis, and intervention. This is a preliminary case study to test the efficacy of the neurofeedback technique in helping an Asperger’s child to reduce his pathological symptoms (e.g., sociability, sensory/cognitive awareness, communication/ speech/ language, and physical behaviour). Neurofeedback is brain training based on the operant conditioning concept to regulate brainwave activities voluntarily using audio or visual feedback (real-time). In this study, we conducted neurofeedback training on an eight-year-old boy diagnosed with Aspergers aimed to enhance Sensorimotor Rhythm (SMR) wave (12 to 15 Hz) and at the same time inhibiting theta wave (4-8 Hz) and high beta wave (22-36Hz) at C4 over the right motor area, with the reference electrode placed on A2 and ground electrode placed on A1. Twenty (20) sessions of neurofeedback training were conducted on the boy’s aims to improve his behaviour and emotional expression, language comprehension. The participant showed observable improvement after 20 sessions of neurofeedback training in sociability and speech/ language or communication subscale of the Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC), and parent’s report. This study provided important evidence that neurofeedback training can be employed to improve the child’s Asperger’s symptoms.

Neurofeedback (NFB) Training in Aspergers

The prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is increasing globally. Due to its high incidence rate reported globally, ASD should be considered as a public health emergency that requires immediate attention to the process of screening, diagnosis, and intervention. This is a preliminary case study to test the efficacy of the neurofeedback technique in helping an Asperger’s child to reduce his pathological symptoms (e.g., sociability, sensory/cognitive awareness, communication/ speech/ language, and physical behaviour). Neurofeedback is brain training based on the operant conditioning concept to regulate brainwave activities voluntarily using audio or visual feedback (real-time). In this study, we conducted neurofeedback training on an eight-year-old boy diagnosed with Aspergers aimed to enhance Sensorimotor Rhythm (SMR) wave (12 to 15 Hz) and at the same time inhibiting theta wave (4-8 Hz) and high beta wave (22-36Hz) at C4 over the right motor area, with the reference electrode placed on A2 and ground electrode placed on A1. Twenty (20) sessions of neurofeedback training were conducted on the boy’s aims to improve his behaviour and emotional expression, language comprehension. The participant showed observable improvement after 20 sessions of neurofeedback training in sociability and speech/ language or communication subscale of the Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC), and parent’s report. This study provided important evidence that neurofeedback training can be employed to improve the child’s Asperger’s symptoms.

Classification of motor imagery brain wave for bionic hand movement using multilayer perceptron

Physical disability due to amputation can affect a person's quality of life due to limited movement in performing daily activities. Bionic hands are used to help someone with an amputation disability. This research developed a bionic hand control based on electroencephalography sensors capable of measuring the brain's bioelectric activity. The classified brain wave was then translated as activity pattern information. The alpha &amp; beta waves were the focus of this work. This study demonstrated a method to extract and classify motor imagery of brainwave activity patterns. The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) method extracts motor imagery characteristics. The extraction of features is then classified by the Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) method for five classes of bionic hand movement. Testing was conducted with two scenarios. The first test motor imagery without additional movement showed an accuracy of 77.20 %, while the second test motor imagery combined with head movement showed an accuracy of 84.40% for five classes. The system based on motor imagery has been implemented in a bionic hand that shows the applicability of the proposed method.

Overproduction of hydrogen sulfide, generated by cystathionine β-synthase, disrupts brain wave patterns and contributes to neurobehavioral dysfunction in a rat model of down syndrome

Using a novel rat model of Down syndrome (DS), the functional role of the cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS)/hydrogen sulfide (H2S) pathway was investigated on the pathogenesis of brain wave pattern alterations and neurobehavioral dysfunction. Increased expression of CBS and subsequent overproduction of H2S was observed in the brain of DS rats, with CBS primarily localizing to astrocytes and the vasculature. DS rats exhibited neurobehavioral defects, accompanied by a loss of gamma brain wave activity and a suppression of the expression of multiple pre- and postsynaptic proteins. Aminooxyacetate, a prototypical pharmacological inhibitor of CBS, increased the ability of the DS brain tissue to generate ATP in vitro and reversed the electrophysiological and neurobehavioral alterations in vivo. Thus, the CBS/H2S pathway contributes to the pathogenesis of neurological dysfunction in DS, most likely through dysregulation of cellular bioenergetics and gene expression.

Facebook usage patterns looking into the mind via the ICAP engagement framework

ABSTRACT This study aimed to establish an accurate baseline for Facebook usage and to investigate its learning potential via biometric perspective. This was explored by asking college students to browse their own Facebook page and peruse the content while wearing a high-fidelity EEG headset to record brainwave activity they experienced. Their actions were then coded using the empirically based Interactive-Constructive-Active-Passive (ICAP) engagement model to identify elements that could potentially be leveraged for learning. Based on these results, Facebook does not seem to make an ideal learning platform, due to higher frustration levels during higher cognitive tasks compared to passively consuming personally relevant non-instructional content. However, it may have more positive impacts on learning as long as initial frustration level is transformed smoothly to engagement and motivation for some learning opportunities and activities.

A Case Study in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: An Innovative Neurofeedback-Based Approach

In research about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) there is growing interest in evaluating cortical activation and using neurofeedback in interventions. This paper presents a case study using monopolar electroencephalogram recording (brain mapping known as MiniQ) for subsequent use in an intervention with neurofeedback for a 10-year-old girl presenting predominantly inattentive ADHD. A total of 75 training sessions were performed, and brain wave activity was assessed before and after the intervention. The results indicated post-treatment benefits in the beta wave (related to a higher level of concentration) and in the theta/beta ratio, but not in the theta wave (related to higher levels of drowsiness and distraction). These instruments may be beneficial in the evaluation and treatment of ADHD.