Brackish Research Articles

A Review Paper on Effect of Different Parameters to Optimize Yield of Solar Still

The worldwide demand of potable water is continuously increasing because of population and industrial growth, the result is the shortage of water in many places of the world. To overcome these problems there is a demand for some supportable sources for the purification of water, one of them is solar still. Solar still is a device used to convert brackish or saline water in to drinkable water. In this article a review of different parameters affecting the performance of solar still (like climatic conditions, design, absorber materials, Internal and external reflectors, energy storing materials) has been studied. Use of phase change materials in basin caused significant enhancement in productivity of solar still whereas use of external condenser coupled with single basin solar still increased the productivity. Considering some design parameter while design and development of solar still affects very much distillate of solar still. Key Words: Solar Still, Desalination, Purification of brackish water, distiller.

Simple on-site extraction and GC-MS analysis of rotenone and degradation products for monitoring invasive fish eradication treatments in fresh and brackish waters

The introduction of invasive fish species to aquatic ecosystems has been demonstrated to cause disastrous ecological effects. Current conservation strategies regard rotenone-containing piscicide formulations, such as commercial product CFT Legumine, as a potentially viable alternative to the cumbersome traditional approaches to fish eradication. This consideration relies on the fast degradation of rotenone and its relatively rapid dissipation from the environment. Piscicide treatments in fragile aquatic ecosystems should thus monitor not only rotenone concentrations following application, but also other byproducts and degradation products. We present a methodology for the analysis of rotenoids in fresh and brackish waters that addresses two main challenges: the accurate determination of applied concentrations in different salinity concentrations by performing a simplified on-site solid-phase extraction, overcoming the fast degradation of rotenone in sample storage conditions, and the selective analysis of rotenoid byproducts and degradation products by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Limits of quantification were below the ecological no-effect concentration of rotenone (2 µg/L) and average recoveries exceeded 80%. Accuracy (compared to expected values) and precision (deviation of replicates) ranged from 78 to 103% and 3 to 14%, respectively, across various rotenoid concentrations. These metrics are more than satisfactory for the intended application of this simplified procedure. The method was applied to piscicide-treated samples, revealing significant and fast degradation of parent rotenoids in storage conditions, as well as a non-negligible accumulation of rotenone in the particulate fraction of water that could impact the effectivity of eradication efforts.

Coleps shanghaiensis n. sp. challenges the validity of the genus Levicoleps (Ciliophora, Prostomatida)

Coleps is a common genus of pelagic ciliates in freshwater and brackish water habitats. Classification and phylogeny of Coleps species are, however, still full of confusion. In this study, we investigated Coleps shanghaiensis n. sp., collected from a river in Shanghai, China, by living observation, protargol staining, and molecular methods. Coleps shanghaiensis is about 70–90 µm × 35–55 µm in size, has a barrel-shaped body with three posterior spines, and possesses 21–24 ciliary rows, each composed of two perioral dikinetids and 19–22 monokinetids, and six caudal cilia. In SSU rRNA gene phylogenies, C. shanghaiensis fell within the clade of subspecies of Levicoleps biwae, which questions the validity of the genus Levicoleps. Furthermore, the biogeography of the genus Coleps is discussed.

Can the Culture Density of the Marine Copepod Pseudodiaptomus nihonkaiensis be Improved by Installing an Artificial Substrate?

The understanding of the increasing population density of copepods in culture tanks contributes to establish their stable cultures at high productions for aquaculture industry, which are preferred live feeds for fish larvae. In the present study, the semi-benthic copepod Pseudodiaptomus nihonkaiensis were used as target species. This genus is often found from brackish water and its tolerance to a wide range of salinity and water quality has attracted attention as a potential commercial live feed for aquaculture. Population growth and egg production in the semi-benthic copepod P. nihonkaiensis are investigated. Copepods were cultured in tanks without mesh, with mesh lining tank walls, and with 2, 4 or 8 mesh partitions in each tank to identify the effect of substratum surface area on copepod population density. Linear regression revealed peaks in nauplius, copepodite, adult and total densities, and the cumulative number of eggs for all sampling events to correlate positively with substratum surface area (p<0.01). Greater substratum area within a culture tank may improve egg production by increasing habitat for ovigerous females. The simple installation of inexpensive artificial substrata in existing copepod culture tanks might improve the feasibility of using copepods as a live food in commercial-scale aquaculture.

Implications of germination tolerances on invasion potential of Arthraxon hispidus.

Arthraxon hispidus is an introduced, rapidly spreading, and newly invasive grass in the eastern United States, yet little is known about the foundational biology of this aggressive invader. Germination responses to environmental factors including salinity, pH, osmotic potential, temperature, and burial depth were investigated to better understand its germination niche. Seeds from six populations in the Mid-Atlantic US germinated 95% with an average mean time to germination of 3.42 days of imbibition in the dark at 23°C. Germination occurred across a temperature range of 8-37°C and a pH range of 5-10 (≥83%), suggesting that neither pH nor temperature will limit germination in many environments. Arthraxon hispidus germination occurred in high salinity (342 mM NaCl) and osmotic potentials as low as -0.83MPa. The NaCl concentration required to reduce germination by 50% exceeded salinity concentrations found in soil and some brackish water saltmarsh systems. While drought adversely affects A. hispidus, 50% germination occurred at osmotic potentials ranging from -0.25 to -0.67 MPa. Given the climatic conditions of North America, drought stress is unlikely to restrict germination in large regions. Finally, emergence greatly decreased with burial depth. Emergence was reduced to 45% at 1-2 cm burial depths, and 0% at 8 cm. Emergence depths in concert with adequate moisture, germination across a range of temperatures, and rapid germination suggests A. hispidus' seed bank may be short-lived in moist environments, but further investigation is warranted. Given the broad abiotic tolerances of A. hispidus and a widespread native range, A. hispidus has the potential to germinate in novel territories beyond its currently observed invaded range.

Production of microalgae in wastewater and brackish waters: kinetic, lipid content, bioremediation and cost analysis studies

ABSTRACT The cultivation of microalgae in domestic wastewater offers a sustainable solution for the treatment of effluents, while at the same time producing biomass rich in lipids, potentially usable in the production of biofuels. Furthermore, reuse contributes to the treatment of wastewater, transforming a byproduct into a valuable source of nutrients for the production of microalgae biomass. This study involves the production of microalgae in open cultivation, using domestic effluents as a source of nutrients in brackish environments, to study the potential for biodiesel production. Intracellular lipids were between 17 and 20%. As for the bioremediation capacity, the results showed removal levels greater than 95% of nutrients, as well as bacterial and pollutant load reduction. The growth kinetics and the prediction of theoretical kinetic models through the use of computational tools show significant differences, due to the lack of control of process parameters in open cultivations. Based on the literature review and market research, a cost analysis for large-scale production in open crops was made, comparing with closed crops and finding lower costs in the implementation, maintenance and production of biodiesel in the production open.

The comparative toxicity of biobased, modified biobased, biodegradable, and petrochemical-based microplastics on the brackish water flea Diaphanosoma celebensis

The escalating production and improper disposal of petrochemical-based plastics have led to a global pollution issue with microplastics (MPs), which pose a significant ecological threat. Biobased and biodegradable plastics are believed to mitigate plastic pollution. However, their environmental fate and toxicity remain poorly understood. This study compares the in vivo effects of different types of MPs, poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) as a biodegradable plastic, polylactic acid (PLA) as a biobased plastic, β-cyclodextrin-grafted PLA as a modified biobased plastic, and low density polyethylene as the reference petrochemical-based plastic, on the key aquatic primary consumer Diaphanosoma celebensis. Exposure to MPs resulted in significant reproductive decline, with comparable effects observed irrespective of MP type or concentration. Exposure to MPs induced distinct responses in redox stress, with transcriptional profiling revealing differential gene expression patterns that indicate varied cellular responses to different types of MPs. ATP-binding cassette transporter activity assays demonstrated altered efflux activity, mainly in response to modified biobased and biodegradable MPs. Overall, this study highlights the comparable in vivo and in vitro effects of biobased, biodegradable, and petrochemical-based MPs on aquatic primary consumers, highlighting their potential ecological implications.

A Foundational Study of the Dehram River’s Aquatic Ecosystem: Bridging Fresh and Brackish Water

A Foundational Study of the Dehram River’s Aquatic Ecosystem: Bridging Fresh and Brackish Water

Salinity Profiles in Coastal Aquifers: A Characterization Framework for Field Measurements

AbstractThe freshwater‐seawater mixing zone (“interface”) is affected by tides, seawater intrusion, submarine groundwater discharge and aquifer heterogeneities. Our current understanding is based primarily on theoretical studies involving numerical simulation and sand‐tank experimentation, with limited field analyses of interface characteristics in coastal aquifers that serve as important freshwater reservoirs. The most common field evidence for interface characteristics is derived from electrical conductivity (EC) profiles, often obtained from long‐screen wells. However, the EC profiles from long‐screen wells have been assessed previously using only simple statistics like the depth to 50% of seawater concentration. This study introduces a methodology for characterizing EC profiles using curve fitting and objective assessment of multiple interface attributes, with application to 170 EC profiles from the Lower Burdekin Delta, Australia. The adopted fitting function showed an excellent match (mean R2 = 0.99). Fitting parameters were linked to the curvatures of transitions from fresh to brackish water and from brackish water to seawater, the elevation and gradient of the mid‐salinity value, and the thickness of the mixing zone. Field EC profiles showed approximately linear relationships between head changes averaged over the previous 5 months and the elevation of 5 mS/cm isochlor for some wells. The slope of this relationship was approximately one, which is approximately 1/40th of the value arising from the Ghyben‐Herzberg relation. The framework for characterizing salinity profiles presented in this article offers a new, objective approach for investigating the interface, providing future studies with a technique for examining relationships between interface behavior and key controlling forces.

Optimizing water condition in tropical brackish water aquaponics: A novel internet of things and machine learning approach

Abstract This research presents a novel water condition regulation system specifically designed for brackish water aquaponics in the Aceh tropical climates. The study utilizes cutting-edge sensor technologies, intelligent feedback mechanisms, and IoT-integrated precise water condition adjustments. The aim of this approach is to optimize critical water condition indicators including pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen for shrimp cultivation while enabling the simultaneous growth type of vegetable plants. The methodology encompasses a comprehensive model training procedure, wherein Random Forest and Genetic Algorithms are applied on a computer to predict optimize water condition indicators from historical data. The optimize water condition indicators then will be utilized in real time control and inference by Internet-of-Things (IoT) system based on Arduino microcontroller and dispensing actuators. A forty-day experimental phase in a brackish water aquaponics setup was conducted and verified that IoT system has effectively preserved optimal water conditions to the growth of both fishes and leafy green vegetables. The findings of the research suggest that the proposed IoT regulation system has maintained pH stability, salinity and Dissolved Oxygen at optimize level. The finding also recommend that the lettuce, spinach, and kale have emerged as the most appropriate plants for brackish water aquaponic system. The integration of Random Forest and Genetic Algorithm with IoT technology designate a significant advancement in the field of brackish water aquaponics, providing intelligent alternatives for agriculture in Aceh coastal areas.

Capacitive deionization technology with multi-stage treatment as an efficient desalination process for agricultural irrigation

Novel capacitive deionization (CDI) technology is recognized as a cheap desalination method and holds a promise to be deployed in low-profit fields such as agricultural and municipal works. In this study, the application feasibility of CDI technology in agricultural irrigation is thoroughly investigated. The desalination performance of three operation methods (“low flow rate”, “high applied voltage”, and “two-stage treatment”) are compared for treating artificial brackish water of 2000 mg L−1 to a set desalination target (600 mg L−1). Among these three methods, “two-stage treatment” overwhelms the other two methods regarding several desalination indicators, achieving a decent productivity (1.5 L h−1 m−2) with a small energy input of 1.4 kWh m−3. The modified Donnan model indicates that energy dissipation is mitigated in a high flow rate adopted in two-stage treatment, and meantime a high desalination capacity and a good charge efficiency are achieved. In addition, desalinated water with a salt concentration gradient is produced by the CDI module for tomato seedlings irrigation. Compared with the tomato seedlings irrigated by feedwater (2000 mg L−1), the total length and the biomass weight of those irrigated by desalinated water of 300 mg L−1 increase 51.1 % and 119.8 %, respectively. The research accomplishes a proof-of-concept of the agricultural application of CDI technology, and provides reliable data as the foundation for its future practical operation.

Plasma-assisted preparation of NiCoAl-layered double hydroxides with alarge interlayer spacing on carbon cloth forelectrochemical deionization

Capacitive deionization has been considered an emerging desalination technique in recent years, especially for its economic and energy-saving characteristics for brackish water. However, there are currently few studies on chloride ion removal electrodes, and the slow desalination kinetics limits their development. Ar-NiCoAl- layered double hydroxide (LDH)@ACC materials with an increased interlayer spacing were prepared by the in-situ growth of NiCoAl-LDHs nanosheet arrays on acid-treated carbon cloth (ACC) and subsequent Ar plasma treatment. The carbon cloth suppresses the agglomeration of the NiCoAl-LDHs nanosheets and improves the electrical conductivity, while the plasma treatment increases the interlayer spacing of NiCoAl-LDHs and improves its hydrophilicity. This provides rapid diffusion channels and more interlayer active sites for chloride ions, achieving high desalination kinetics. A hybrid capacitive deionization (HCDI) cell was assembled using Ar-NiCoAl-LDHs@ACC as the chloride ion removal electrode and activated carbon as the sodium ion removal electrode. This HCDI cell achieved a high desalination capacity of 93.26 mg g−1 at 1.2 V in a 1000 mg L−1 NaCl solution, a remarkable desalination rate of 0.27 mg g−1 s−1, and a good charge efficiency of 0.97. The capacity retention remained above 85% after 100 cycles in a 300 mg L−1 NaCl solution at 0.8 V. The work provides new ideas for the controlled preparation of two-dimensional metal hydroxide materials with a large interlayer spacing and the design of high-performance electrochemical chlorine ion removal electrodes.

Comprehensive approach integrating remote sensing, machine learning, and physicochemical parameters to detect hydrodynamic conditions and groundwater quality deterioration in non-rechargeable aquifer systems

The current study integrates remote sensing, machine learning, and physicochemical parameters to detect hydrodynamic conditions and groundwater quality deterioration in non-rechargeable aquifer systems. Fifty-two water samples were collected from all water resources in Siwa Oasis and analyzed for physical (pH, T°C, EC, and TDS) chemical (SO42−, HCO3−, NO3−, Cl−, CO32−, SiO2, Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+, and K+), and trace metals (AL, Fe, Sr, Ba, B, and Mn). A digital elevation model supported by machine learning was used to predict the change in the land cover (surface lake area, soil salinity, and water logging) and its effect on water quality deterioration. The groundwater circulation and interaction between the deep aquifer (NSSA) and shallow aquifer (TCA) were detected from the pressure-depth profile of 27 production wells penetrating NSSA. The chemical facies evolution in the aquifer systems were (Ca–Mg–HCO3) in the first stage (freshwater of NSSA) and changed to (Na–Cl) type in the last stage (brackish water of TCA and springs). Support vector machine successfully predicted the rapid increase of the hypersaline lake area from 22.6 km2 to 60.6 km2 within 30 years, which deteriorated a large part of the cultivated land, reflecting the environmental risk of over-extraction of water for irrigation of agricultural land by flooding technique and lack of suitable drainage network. The waterlogging in the study was due to a reduction in the infiltration rate (low permeability) of the soil and quaternary aquifer. The cause of this issue could be a complete saturation of agricultural water with chrysotile, calcite, talc, dolomite, gibbsite, chlorite, Ca-montmorillonite, illite, hematite, kaolinite and K-mica (saturation index >1), giving the chance of these minerals to precipitate in the pore spaces of the soil and decrease the infiltration rate. The NSSA is appropriate for irrigation, whereas TCA is inappropriate due to potential salinity and magnesium risks. The best way to manage water resources in Siwa Oasis could be to use underground drip irrigation and combine water with TCA and NSSA.

Development of absorption spectrophotometry of iron(III) in environmental water and sediments using NEDA and its application to the field.

In this study, we developed a simple method that enables iron(III) in environmental water to be directly determined via spectrophotometry. In water samples, iron(III) formed a yellowish complex with N-1-Naphthylethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NEDA) at pH 2.0-2.8, the maximum absorption wavelength of which was 462nm. Detection sensitivity increased in the presence of chloride ions and remained constant for 2-24h with 0.05-0.57molL-1 chloride. Therefore, NEDA solution containing chloride ions was used as a chromogenic reagent for the determination of iron(III). The determination range for this method was 0.1-20mgFe(III)L-1 in a 5cm glass cell. The developed method is highly selective for iron(III) and has been successfully applied to freshwater, brackish water, seawater, turbid water in rivers, as well as to riverbed and freshwater lake sediments. In addition, a combination of the proposed NEDA method and the 1,10-phenanthroline method enabled simultaneous determination of iron(III) and iron(II).

Efficiency of Nitrogen Fertilization in Millet Irrigated with Brackish Water

Nitrogen fertilization can provide greater nutritional support and mitigate salt stress in the millet crop. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological responses and agronomic performance of millet crop subjected to nitrogen fertilization and irrigation water salinity. The study was carried out in a greenhouse, using a completely randomized design in a 5 × 2 factorial scheme, with four replications, with five doses of nitrogen (40; 60; 80; 100 and 120 kg ha−1 of N), and two levels of electrical conductivity for the irrigation water: 0.3 and 4.0 dS m−1. We concluded that salt stress increased leaf sodium levels and had a negative impact on stalk and panicle dry mass, leaf gas exchange, mineral element concentrations (K, P, and Ca), and water use efficiency. The use of lower-salinity water associated with increased nitrogen fertilization provides greater stalk and panicle dry mass, photosynthesis, water use efficiency, chlorophyll index, leaf potassium concentration, and biomass production. The adverse effects of salt stress were evident in decreased transpiration and stomatal conductance, alongside reductions in leaf phosphorus and calcium levels, coupled with elevated leaf sodium concentrations, particularly as nitrogen fertilization rates increased in potted millet plants. These findings offer insights for devising strategies aimed at mitigating the detrimental effects of salt stress on millet plant nutrition through targeted nitrogen fertilization approaches.

Vertical Haloponics: Sustainable and Resilient Productions Using Brackish Water

While the rapidly growing global population will require a significant increase in food production in the next years, the current climate, sanitary and geopolitical crises highlight the weaknesses of the actual food production systems, excessively dependent on external inputs and involving extremely complex nested scales and non-linear processes. Thus, appears clearly the need of accelerating the transition toward agricultural solutions and food systems based on the principles of the “Green Deal”, encompassing ecological resilience, environmental sustainability, local production, and universal access to healthy foods. Aquaponics (AP) can provide short and eco-friendly food supply chains with increased resource-use efficiency, high environmental sustainability, and food resilience. The sustainability of AP systems could be further increased by exploiting water resources that are not suitable for other purposes (brackish and salt water - haloponics), applying the vertical farming technology for both aquatic and vegetable species, reducing the use of fish meal in aquafeeds, valorizing the system residues (sludge) for agronomic purposes.The VERTICHALPONICS project aims to develop an innovative food production system by implementing an interdisciplinary approach. Since aquaponics combines recirculation aquaculture and hydroponics, within a close loop, it is considered environment friendly. However, given the different technical approaches, it is necessary to evaluate the differences in impacts and specially to assess whether the vertical system is really resource-efficient and economically viable for farmers, in comparison to the business-as-usual. The environmental and economic sustainability of the system is measured by the mean of a combined LCA and the LCC analysis (EN ISO 14040-44 and ISO 15686-5:2017 standards). The system expansion will be used to evaluate the beneficial effect of reducing the overall environmental burden from by-product recovery and utilization of side wastes, specifically the sludge produced. The method applied are Recipe and IPCC 2013 Global Warming Potential 100a. Environmental impact indicators will be provided using both mid-point and end-point categories thank to the Recipe Method, while the IPCC 2013 Global Warming Potential 100a will be applied to calculate the direct global warming potential of the system. Moreover, the inclusion of the agronomic valorization of the sludge will be analyzed to understand the potential in terms of avoided impacts.

Гидрологическая ситуация накануне осолонения устьевого участка реки Преголи (Юго-Восточная Балтика).

Based on the results of field measurements in the spring of 2023, the water intrusion from the receiving reservoir (Vistula Lagoon) 7.5 km deep into the mouth section of the Pregolya River (Kaliningrad) was recorded. The presence of two sharp frontal zones was revealed (the first one is between the marine and lagoon waters, the second one is between the brackish waters of the Kaliningrad Sea Canal and the fresh waters of the Pregolya River), as well as a mixing zone (salinity of 4–5 psu) 20–25 km long between them. It is noted that the near-bottom boundary of the river frontal zone is significantly “deeper” in the estuary of the Pregolya River than it was observed at the turn of the 2000s. The mixing zones within the Kaliningrad Sea Canal and the Vistula Lagoon are independent, because they are separated by a chain of islands, and the lagoon and canal are different hydrological objects.

Achieving Exceptional Volumetric Desalination Capacity Using Compact MoS2 Nanolaminates.

Capacitive deionization (CDI) has emerged as a promising technology for freshwater recovery from low-salinity brackish water. It is still inapplicable in specific scenarios (e.g., households, islands, or offshore platforms) due to too low volumetric adsorption capacities. In this study, a high-density semi-metallic molybdenum disulfide (1T'-MoS2) electrode with compact architecture obtained by restacking of exfoliated nanosheets, which achieve high capacitance up to ≈277.5Fcm-3 under an ultrahigh scan rate of 1000mVs-1 with a lower charge-transfer resistance and nearly tenfold higher electrochemical active surface area than the 2H-MoS2 electrode, is reported. Furthermore, 1T'-MoS2 electrode demonstrates exceptional volumetric desalination capacity of 65.1mgNaClcm-3 in CDI experiments. Ex situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) reveal that the cation storage mechanism with the dynamic expansion of 1T'-MoS2 interlayer to accommodate cations such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+, which in turn enhances the capacity. Theoretical analysis unveils that 1T' phase is thermodynamically preferable over 2H phase, the ion hydration and channel confinement also play critical role in enhancing ion adsorption. Overall, this work provides a new method to design compact 2D-layered nanolaminates with high-volumetric performance for CDI desalination.

Statistical analysis of earth observing data for physicochemical water quality parameters estimation for Lake Beseka, Northern main Ethiopian rift, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Water quality deterioration in the Main Ethiopian Rift Lakes is one of the problems affecting the health and socioeconomic development of the area. This study was aimed to develop a method to assess the water quality change of Lake Beseka using satellite image reflectance data and observed data. Multi-temporal Landsat imagery and three variables were used to assess the physicochemical environment: pH, EC, and TDS. Linear regression and correlation were accomplished between observed water quality parameters and surface reflectance of different band operations. The best-fitted linear regression equation for pH was found on SWIR1 while for EC and TDS, the blue/green band ratio was highly fitted. The Pearson coefficients of correlation for pH, EC, and TDS were − 0.79, 0.86, and 0.85, respectively. The RMSE and p-value for validation analysis were 0.25/0.005, 548/0.003, and 367/0.004 for pH, EC, and TDS, respectively. The estimated pH, EC, and TDS were higher in the central portion of the lake grouped under brackish water and lower in the southwestern, southern, and northeastern shores. The estimated EC and TDS for the years 2018 and 2021 were relatively lower than in 2007 and 2023. The spatiotemporal lake water variations were due to anthropogenic and geogenic factors including hot springs and groundwater discharge to the lake, water-level rise and depth variation, and evaporation. These findings are helpful for understanding linear regression equations that developed from surface reflectance and observed data, which are essential to estimating and monitoring water quality change in a cost-effective and time-saving manner.

Temperature effects on ion migration and energy consumption during brackish water electrodialysis desalination

Electrodialysis (ED) is a well-established brackish water (BW) desalination technology based on the selective electro-transfer mechanism of ions for meeting freshwater demands in scarce water regions. While the influence laws of water temperature difference caused by changing seasons on the performance of BWED need to be clarified further. This study examined the effect of temperature on the desalination efficiency and energy consumption of BWED by controlling the water temperature with a constant temperature tank. Results showed that higher temperature significantly increased the current density and salt flux of BWED, but also caused a decrease and then an increase in energy consumption. The apparent activation energy of BWED system in low temperature range is about 40 % higher than that in high temperature range, indicating that higher temperature is contributed to reduce the ion transport resistance. While higher temperature increased ion diffusivity and membrane pore size, with a corresponding rise in LCD of ∼0.41 mA/cm2 and an increase in desalination ratio of ∼7.75 % for increment of every 10 °C, thus enhanced reverse salt diffusion. The running parameters of BWED system should be regularly regulated with the seasonal temperature based on the trade-off between desalination efficiency and energy consumption to ensure an efficient operation.