Box-ironbark Research Articles

Impacts of logging, fire and grazing regimes on bird species assemblages of the Pilliga woodlands of New South Wales

We investigated the composition and distribution of bird assemblages in the continuous Pilliga woodlands of north-west New South Wales in relation to floristic assemblages and disturbance (logging, fire and grazing) patterns. Box-ironbark woodlands contained high densities of White Cypress Pine Callitris glaucophylla and Narrow-leaved Ironbark Eucalyptus crebra, had a sparse, depauperate understorey, and were associated with frequent, intense logging and infrequent fires (due to fire exclusion and the use of grazing for fuel reduction). Box-ironbark woodlands were characterized by high frequencies of 12 bird species that occurred throughout the Pilliga and low frequencies of many other species. Blakely's Red Gum E. blakelyi woodlands typical of creeks and Broad-leaved Ironbark E. fibrosa woodlands typical of poor soils contained lower densities or smaller trees of C. glaucophylla and E. crebra, had a moderately dense, diverse understorey, and were associated with infrequent low-intensity logging and moderately frequent wildfire. Bird species assemblages of Broad-leaved Ironbark woodlands were similar to those of box-ironbark woodlands. Blakely's Red Gum woodlands were characterized by 36 bird species that were virtually absent from box-ironbark and Broad-leaved Ironbark woodlands, including 10 threatened and declining species. The 10 are among 48 woodland species that are known or thought to be declining and that are dependent on woodlands with mature trees and grassy or patchy grass/shrub understorey. We conclude that these species have declined in the Pilliga and will continue to decline under existing disturbance regimes, particularly in box-ironbark woodlands. We suggest adaptive management strategies for maintaining and rehabilitating their habitats.

Two Models of Residential Conservation: communal life in an Australian box-ironbark forest

Grassroots community organisations offer simple ways of maintaining natural heritage values. Given the degradation of landscapes supporting fauna in many parts of the world, such organisations promise direct benefits for local communities and ecological biodiversity. Also, global warming, resulting in part from the removal of forest, will abate with the restoration of trees. The Bend of Islands (Victoria, Australia) boasts two organisations dedicated to the communal conservation of a landscape of remnant box-ironbark (eucalypt) forest. This woodland heritage is managed by residents to preserve its ecological values.The Round the Bend Conservation Co-operative (RBCC) is a land settlement co-operative. Members are committed to maintaining the local bushland in as natural a state as possible using minimal-impact environmental practices. The Bend of Islands Conservation Association (BICA) was established several years after the co-operative, but with the same environmental purpose. It covers a broader area, incorporating over 130 private land titles. This article describes the history and practices of RBCC and BICA and indicates their potential as models for the development of conservation principles and practices by other communities in similar landscapes.

Reptiles and habitat fragmentation in the box-ironbark forests of central Victoria, Australia: predictions, compositional change and faunal nestedness.

There are few published accounts addressing the impact of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity of terrestrial reptiles. Here we provide information on the saurofaunas of fragments of box-ironbark forest of central Victoria, south-eastern Australia, gathered over three years. Data for fragments of four size classes (10ha, 20ha, 40ha, 80ha) are compared with similar information for 'reference areas', which are sites of the same range of areas but set within large blocks of continuous forest (>10,000ha). These comparisons are used to differentiate fragmentation effects from normal species-area relationships. Two sets of data are presented. One is an 'extensive' set based on 68 fragments and reference areas surveyed by using transect counts and area searches. The other 'intensive' set also included pitfall trapping, but was restricted to just 17 fragments and reference areas. The reptilian fauna generally was both depauperate and of low abundance. Differences in capture-rates and species richness between fragments and reference areas collectively are minor, but there are significant differences in species richness between area classes. While fragmentation does not seem to be influential on total numbers and richness, there are important differences in the occurrence of certain species. The two most abundant species in reference areas were very rare in fragments, while a number of species were either in much greater numbers or only occurred in fragments. Many of the observed distributions were consistent with predictions made prior to the study on differences in vulnerability between species. We show that the saurofaunas are 'nested subsets' by area, with strongest nesting apparent in the intensive data-set for reference areas.

Birds on edge: avian assemblages along forest‐agricultural boundaries of central Victoria, Australia

AbstractHabitat clearance generally produces fragmented landscapes. A major consequence is the creation of large amounts of new ‘edge habitat’, often of a kind not previously existing, such as abrupt forest‐ agricultural land interfaces. Much work from around the world suggests that proliferation of edge habitat seriously affects birds reliant on large forest blocks to persist, and the intrusion of edge specialists into areas they did not previously occupy. These processes often generate avifaunal gradients in which assemblages change from the interior to the edge. This effect is explored in the largest remnant block of box‐ironbark forest of central Victoria, Australia (about 30,000 ha). Eight radially oriented survey lines were established around the periphery of the block. Along each survey line, five transects with long axes oriented parallel to the edge were positioned with midlines at 40 m, 160 m, 280 m and 400 m into the forest, and one transect 80 m into the agricultural land, yielding a total of 40 transects. Six identical transects were located deep within the forest (> 2 km). There was little evidence of a change in the avifauna from interior to edge, although mean richness was depressed in the edge habitats compared with forest interior transects. These results were essentially the same for ‘all species’ or ‘forest dependent’ species. Thus, there is little evidence for marked edge effects on the avifauna of these large forest blocks, although work in intermediate sized remnants (100‐1000 ha) is needed to identify thresholds at which edge effects begin to be manifested.

Relationships between terrestrial vertebrate diversity, abundance and availability of coarse woody debris on south-eastern Australian floodplains

Coarse woody debris (fallen wood, CWD) has been largely stripped from both rivers and their floodplains in the southern Murray-Darling basin of south-eastern Australia. Some of our work suggests that as little as 20 t/ha (on average) remains on floodplains where once the figure may have been closer to 90–125 t/ha. Here we examine the consequences of this depletion of a potentially significant habitat-structural element on the terrestrial vertebrates of the floodplain forests. Three major forests were studied: Gunbower Island, Barmah Forest and the Ovens River floodplain (all in northern Victoria, Australia). In each forest, seven graded (by loads of CWD) sites were investigated over 2 years. Our results show that the only native terrestrial mammal (yellow-footed antechinus Antechinus flavipes) occupies sites in significantly higher densities when wood loads exceed 45 t/ha. Ground- and CWD-using birds are more prevalent, and in richer diversity, in the vicinities of accumulations of woody debris. Overall, fallen-wood loads do not appear to relate significantly to avian patterns apart from at the local scale (i.e. near wood accumulations). Neither frogs nor reptiles appear to be influenced by fallen-wood loads. These results suggest that restoration targets might reasonably be set at about 40–50 t/ha, but it seems that birds would be aided by the imposition of a high variance in CWD-load densities rather than an even distribution. Numbers of reptiles are very low, which may reflect the very broad-scale depletion of fallen timber from these habitats; similar impacts may have been expressed in wood-depleted box-ironbark forests immediately to the south of the floodplain forests.

Two Models of Residential Conservation: communal life in an Australian box-ironbark forest

Grassroots community organisations offer simple ways of maintaining natural heritage values. Given the degradation of landscapes supporting fauna in many parts of the world, such organisations promise direct benefits for local communities and ecological biodiversity. Also, global warming, resulting in part from the removal of forest, will abate with the restoration of trees. The Bend of Islands (Victoria, Australia) boasts two organisations dedicated to the communal conservation of a landscape of remnant box-ironbark (eucalypt) forest. This woodland heritage is managed by residents to preserve its ecological values.The Round the Bend Conservation Co-operative (RBCC) is a land settlement co-operative. Members are committed to maintaining the local bushland in as natural a state as possible using minimal-impact environmental practices. The Bend of Islands Conservation Association (BICA) was established several years after the co-operative, but with the same environmental purpose. It covers a broader area, incorporating over 130 private land titles. This article describes the history and practices of RBCC and BICA and indicates their potential as models for the development of conservation principles and practices by other communities in similar landscapes.

The influence of habitat disturbance on reptiles in a Box-Ironbark eucalypt forest of south-eastern Australia

Understanding how habitat disturbance affects the occurrence of fauna is an important issue in the effective management of habitat and conservation of biodiversity. In this study, 11 paired sites were established around the periphery of Rushworth State Forest in central Victoria, south-eastern Australia, to examine the influence of disturbance to structural complexity in the ground strata on the occurrence of reptiles. Study sites were paired on the basis of proximity, physiognomic and vegetational characteristics – each pair was established in the same vegetation 'type' (Ecological Vegetation Class) and was dominated by the overstorey species of Red Ironbark Eucalyptus tricarpa and Grey Box E. microcarpa, or Bull Mallee E. behriana and Grey Box. They were also paired on the basis that they had experienced different degrees of disturbance to the ground strata. Sites within each pair differed substantially in their ground-layer structure (e.g. number of stumps, total number of shrubs, litter depth), but were virtually indistinguishable in their overstorey characteristics (e.g. basal area, canopy cover, cover of tall shrubs). Surveys over two summer seasons using area-constrained active searches yielded ten species of reptiles from five families. Despite the repeated search effort, both the number of reptile species and individuals recorded per site were low (≤4 species, ≤17 individuals), suggesting the possibility of historical impoverishment. Reptiles were generally 2.4 times more abundant on 'undisturbed' than 'disturbed' sites. The disparity was also reflected in the number of species per site, which was significantly greater on the 'undisturbed' sites. The greater species richness and abundance of reptiles recorded for 'undisturbed' sites are attributed to the greater structural complexity of the ground strata on these sites. Effective management for reptiles, therefore, should aim to create, retain or increase the structural heterogeneity of a site, particularly in the ground-layers.

Understanding Landholder Values and Intentions to Improve Remnant Vegetation Management in Australia: The Box-Ironbark Case Study

ABSTRACT Forest cover has been reduced from 10 to 5% of the area of the Australian continent, with woodlands ecosystems reduced from 23% to 15% of their cover prior to European settlement. Clearing has been accompanied by a dramatic loss of biodiversity. Protected areas on public land cover only 6.5% of Australia and are fragmented and do not represent pre-European ecosystems adequately. Research reported in this paper investigated the quality and extent of Box-Ironbark woodland ecosystem remnants (BIR) on private land, how landholders valued their BIR, and their plans to manage BIR, particularly in regards to clearing. Most landholders managed BIR and indicated a strong utilitarian value to them. The habitat and wildlife values of BIR were also highly regarded. A large majority of landholders indicated they would not clear BIR. These and other results provide important information for those attempting to improve the conservation of biodiversity on private land in Australia.

Forecasting the impacts of habitat fragmentation. Evaluation of species-specific predictions of the impact of habitat fragmentation on birds in the box–ironbark forests of central Victoria, Australia

We tested forecasts made by Mac Nally and Bennett (Mac Nally, R., Bennett, A.F., 1997. Species-specific predictions of the impact of habitat fragmentation: local extinction of birds in the box-ironbark forests of central Victoria, Australia. Biological Conservation 82, 147–155) of relative vulnerability to habitat fragmentation for 43 species of birds in the box–ironbark system of central Victoria, Australia. The predictions were based on a simple, tripartite model linking habitat specialization, density and mobility, three of the characteristics most widely mooted in the literature to influence vulnerability to habitat fragmentation. For each species, a predicted index of ‘proneness’ to local extinction was calculated by using prior, independent data. The model system consisted of existing fragments of 10, 20, 40 and 80 ha size-classes, with between 5 and 15 ‘replicates’ of each size-class. Replicated ‘reference-areas’ — mapped-out areas of these same size-classes set within large (>10 000 ha) remnant forests of the same general vegetation as the fragments — were surveyed also to provide ‘expectations’ of the likelihood of finding each species in a given size-class. Our results indicated that the simple model had virtually no predictive power: the index-values for proneness to local extinction were no help in forecasting whether a given species was over- or under-represented in a fragment of a given size based on the bird's occurrence in reference-areas of similar size. When the three components of the model were tested separately, measures of habitat specialization and mobility showed no relationship with the observed responses of birds to fragmentation, while for population density there was a significant relationship but in a direction contrary to that expected. Evaluation of assumptions underlying the test revealed two main factors that are likely to have affected the model's performance: (1) differences in anthropogenic impacts between fragments and reference-areas have resulted in differences in habitat quality, and (2) species interactions within fragments differ from those in reference-areas, a result of secondary effects arising from the altered spatial pattern of the habitat (e.g. the expansion of numbers and influence of ‘despotic’ species such as the noisy miner Manorina melanocephala). These two factors appear to be common to most fragmented systems and, therefore, need to be addressed in predictive models of species vulnerability. However, because the nature of anthropogenic impacts and the types of changes to species interactions in fragments differ between ecosystems, we conclude that it will be difficult to develop a model of species' vulnerability to fragmentation that has both strong predictive ability and wide generality among ecosystems.

The conservation value of mesic gullies in dry forest landscapes: mammal populations in the box–ironbark ecosystem of southern Australia

Within the context of landscape variation in habitat quality, areas of unusually high productivity may serve as refuges for fauna during environmentally stressful periods and as sources of recruitment into less productive areas. In dry landscapes, water availability often defines habitat quality, so that drainages that concentrate run-off can facilitate relatively lush, and sometimes distinct, vegetation communities. The dry box–ironbark forests of south-eastern Australia may be such an ecosystem. Recent clearing of vegetation for agriculture and mining has eliminated 85% of the original vegetation in this area, with the fertile, alluvial soils being most affected. Fragmentation and degradation of remnant forest in this ecosystem has increased the potential importance of the remaining high-quality habitat to conservation. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the abundance of mammals was higher in moist gullies than on dry hilltops, slopes and ridges in the box–ironbark forests of central Victoria. We compared 57 spatially paired gully and ridge sites. Habitat analyses indicated that gullies had a tree canopy height that was 51% taller than on ridges, 53% more trees with hollows in the upper bole and branches, and almost six times more very large trees. Ridges had 71% more small trees than gullies. Among marsupials surveyed, the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula and common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus were significantly more abundant in gullies. Nearly all the reproduction observed in these two species occurred in gullies. The yellow-footed antechinus Antechinus flavipes was also significantly more abundant in gullies; numbers of the sugar glider Petaurus breviceps differed little. Whereas gullies occupy a very limited total area in this ecosystem, they may nonetheless be critical to some species of mammals that can survive in dry habitats but thrive only in mesic areas. Given the precariously degraded state of the box–ironbark ecosystem as a whole, protection of gullies from proposed alluvial gold mining and timber harvesting could have a disproportionate benefit to biodiversity conservation.

The conservation value of mesic gullies in dry forest landscapes: avian assemblages in the box–ironbark ecosystem of southern Australia

Drainage lines and shallow gullies generally have different microclimates and hence flora to surrounding upland ridges and slopes (abbreviated throughout as ‘ridges'). Gullies often have mesic, or at least less xeric, conditions compared with surrounding ridges. Gullies are frequently subjected to greater human impacts, such as clearance for agriculture, logging, grazing-damage and mining for alluvial deposits. We tested the hypothesis that mesic gullies in the generally dry (400–700 mm precipitation p. a.) box–ironbark forests of central Victoria, Australia, harbour a richer and different avifauna to surrounding ridges. Ten pairs of adjacent gullies and ridge sites were surveyed eight times over 1 year. Species richness was one-third greater in gullies than in ridges, while mean total densities of birds were almost twice as great. Assemblage composition also differed significantly, which reflected: (1) significantly different densities of those species common to both gullies and ridges (several more abundant in gullies, some more abundant in ridges); and (2) differences in composition wherein some species occurred only in one or the other habitat, even though pairs of gullies/ridges were only 400–1900 m apart. These results indicate that avian assemblages within gullies are distinct from those in ridges and slopes, and that integrated management is required to conserve the entire avifauna of these dry forests and woodlands. The depletion of gully habitats through human disturbance makes prescriptive management of gullies the highest priority at present.

Landscape-scale conservation of an endangered migrant:the Swift Parrot ( Lathamus discolor) in its winter range

The endangered Swift Parrot ( Lathamus discolor) is threatened by disturbance processes in both its breeding and its over-wintering ranges. Here we report on the spatial distribution of Swift Parrots over two successive winters in the box-ironbark system of central Victoria, Australia. The parrots showed little site-fidelity overall, and varied significantly among years in their regional distributions. Moreover, in some years it appears that relatively small remnant patches become significant elements in the landscape for the over-wintering parrots. Logistic-regression analyses suggest that the occurrence of Swift Parrots may be linked to the intensity of flowering by the Golden Wattle ( Acacia pycnantha) and also is associated with the summed density of aggressive, nectarivorous honeyeaters of the box-ironbark system. About 17% (a statistically significant amount) of the variance in the presence of Swift Parrots was explicable by these two variables. On the other hand, densities of Swift Parrots (where present) appeared to be related to densities of other nectarivorous species and of Noisy Miners ( Manorina melanocephala). Although statistically significant, just 5% of the variance in densities of Swift Parrots was explained by these variables. There were no relationships between measures of eucalypt flowering and the occurrence or density of Swift Parrots, nor with densities of potential aerial predators. These statistical patterns were difficult to explain because Swift Parrots seem to depend upon eucalypt nectar, with few feeding observations on racemes of Golden Wattle. Moreover, the positive correlation with the honeyeaters is difficult to reconcile with the lack of correspondence with eucalypt flowering. From a conservation standpoint, inter-annual variation in use of the major areas of the box–ironbark system by Swift Parrots is pronounced so that a very broad perspective needs to be maintained for their management in over-wintering regions. Moreover, remnants as small as 10 ha are utilized in some years by Swift Parrots so that preservation of remnant patches must be encouraged.

Classifying endangered vegetation communities: a case study of Cumberland Plain Woodlands

Remnants of an endangered community, Cumberland Plain Woodlands on shale, were studied in order to 1) investigate the conflict between the needs of legislation to define parameters of protected communities in a precise manner and the spatial variation in communities, and 2) to define floristic groupings in the Cumberland Plain Woodlands based on all plant species. Sites previously classified as Grey Box Woodland, Grey Box Ironbark Woodland and Spotted Gum Woodland map units were surveyed and compared to the same classification applied by one of the authors. Differences were evident, but both classifications showed statistically significant differences between map units, suggesting that although each classification is valid, the differences between these map units cannot be consistently applied. Canopy species were not useful descriptors of the community as they grouped differently to both the full species list and the understorey species. A significantly different community occurring at the transition between shale and sandstone in Holsworthy Military Area was identified, suggesting the importance of this area to the conservation of variability in communities in this area. The use of multivariate techniques to describe levels of variation in communities is discussed and a potential method for using a standard level of similarity to classify vegetation communities is introduced as a mechanism for defining communities using some consistent technique.

Habitat of the Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia and the value of the Bundarra-Barraba region for the conservation of avifauna

Five types of woodland and forest in the Bundarra-Barraba region of northern New South Wales were surveyed for Regent Honeyeaters Xanthomyza phrygia and other birds over two years. Regent Honeyeaters were found in 24 of the 93 transects, at a density of 0.09 birds/ha. Most were found in box-ironbark woodland (34% of 62 sites), with single records from box-gum woodland, box-stringybark woodland and dry plateau complex woodland. No Regent Honeyeaters were found in riparian gallery forest during censuses, but they were found breeding there at other times. All habitats contained a high density of birds, compared to other wooded regions in southern Australia, with riparian gallery forest and box-ironbark woodland being particularly rich in species and numbers. These habitats had greater flowering indices, larger trees and more mistletoes than other habitats. Sites used by Regent Honeyeaters supported significantly more birds and bird species than unoccupied sites. The region supports a total of 193 species, four of which are nationally threatened and seven which are threatened in New South Wales. The richness of the bird community in the region is partly because it retains a higher proportion of native vegetation cover (43%) than many other parts of rural Australia. Protection and rehabilitation of box-ironbark woodland and riparian gallery forest is of high priority in a regional conservation plan. However, all habitats in the Bundarra-Barraba region should be protected from clearing and degradation, because they are also used at times by Regent Honeyeaters and support a wide range of bird species. Wise management should retain many sensitive bird species that have disappeared from or declined in other regions of southeastern Australia.

Development of silviculture in the native State forests of Victoria

Summary An historical perspective of silviculture in the native State forests of Victoria is presented covering the impacts of European settlement, initiation of active management, the application of methods based on sound ecological principles and, since the 1970s, a stronger focus on social and environmental objectives. The development of silviculture in the major forest types is discussed, including: ash, Low Elevation Mixed Species, High Elevation Mixed Species, Box-Ironbark and river red gum forests. Organisational arrangements for implementation of silviculture are described, along with processes for development of new and improved systems. The ongoing trend to improve on-ground delivery of silviculture through the use of new technology and the development of performance monitoring and improvement systems for sustainable forest management is also discussed.

Breeding Success and Nest Site Selection of the Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia near Armidale, New South Wales

SummaryThe breeding success and nest site selection of the endangered Regent Honeyeater Xanthomyza phrygia were studied in the Bundarra—Barraba region west of Armidale, New South Wales, between 1993 and 1997. Regent Honeyeaters nested in box-ironbark woodland in all years except 1994 when no nests were found, and also in riparian gallery forest in 1995. Fifty-one Regent Honeyeater nests were built at a mean height of 13.4 m, mainly in trees with rough bark and that averaged 18.6 m in height. Forty-one nests (80%) occurred in aggregations of between two and 11 nests. The estimated population of Regent Honeyeaters in the Bundarra—Barraba region was 51, 101 and 64 in 1993, 1995 and 1996 respectively; these figures are higher than previous estimates. The Mayfield breeding success was 38.3%, which is relatively high compared to other common Australian honeyeaters. It appears that factors other than poor reproductive success are responsible for the current low population level of Regent Honeyeaters in the Bundarra—Barraba region.

Saving Victoria's Box-Ironbark Forests and Woodlands. Our last chance?

Saving Victoria's Box-Ironbark Forests and Woodlands. Our last chance?

Use of Tree Hollows by Two Sympatric Gliding Possums, The Squirrel Glider, Petaurus norfolcensis and The Sugar Glider, P. breviceps.

Populations of the Squirrel Glider, Petaurus norfolcensis and the Sugar Glider, P. breviceps, are often sympatric and the two species are potential competitors for tree hollows. Their use of hollows and artificial nest-boxes was examined in a Box-Ironbark forest where natural hollows are scarce due to past forestry practices. We found gliders used hollows in the boles and branches of trees and in coppicing stumps. There was considerable interspecific overlap in the use of hollows and nest-boxes, both by gliders and other birds and mammals. Both gliders preferred hollows and nest-boxes with narrow entrances (<50 mm diameter). Petaurus breviceps preferred nest-boxes and possibly natural tree hollows with entrances too narrow for the larger P. norfolcensis. When abundant nest-boxes of this type were introduced at the study site, P. breviceps numbers increased and then decreased when the nest-boxes were removed. The results suggest that the larger P. norfolcensis monopolise the best available hollows. Petaurus breviceps numbers may have been limited by a lack of suitable hollows.

Species-specific predictions of the impact of habitat fragmentation: Local extinction of birds in the box-ironbark forests of central Victoria, Australia

Habitat fragmentation is an issue of major concern for the conservation of biota in landscapes throughout the world. For resource managers to have a sound basis for making decisions, and for conservation biology to mature as a discipline, we must go beyond case-by-case interpretation and be able to predict with confidence the impacts of fragmentation in a range of environments. The reliable forecasting, for example, of those species that will be most vulnerable to fragmentation in a given environment would facilitate a pro-active approach to the management of habitats at the landscape and regional scale. There is a need for workers to formulate hypotheses that generate testable predictions, which in turn are evaluated and further refined by empirical studies. Such hypothesis testing will be most convincing when specific predictions are made prior to the conduct of a study. The purpose of the current paper is to make just such a priori predictions on the vulnerability of woodland birds to local extinction in the fragmented box-ironbark Eucalyptus microcarpa/E. tricarpa forest region of central Victoria, Australia. We present a simple model based on three characteristics of terrestrial species: mobility, population density and habitat specificity. We outline the model and use existing information about 43 species previously recorded in these forests (and about which we have pertinent information) to construct a graded series of expectations concerning their proneness to local extinction. The design of a study to test these predictions also is described.

Estimates of Carbon Storage in the Aboveground Biomass of Victorias Forests

The pool of carbon in the world's forests is of similar magnitude to that in the atmosphere, yet little attention has been given to improving measures of carbon in terrestrial biomass. Much of the critical data for forest biomass on which models of global carbon cycling rely is, in fact, based on the accurate sampling of less than 100 ha of forest. Uncertainties in biomass estimation at the local and regional level may be responsible for much of the current speculation as to unidentified sinks for carbon. We have used a forest inventory (i.e. records of forest volume obtained for harvesting purposes) approach to quantify the biomass of forests in Victoria, Australia. Forests were analysed by type, age and region. Regression equations were developed for the accumulation of biomass with age across all productivity classes for each forest type. The mean carbon density for above-ground components of Victorian native forests is 157 tonnes ha-1 (t ha-1), although forest types range in mean carbon density from 250 to 18 t ha-1. Pinus radiata D. Don plantations in Victoria have a mean carbon density of 91 t ha-1 in the above-ground components. Total carbon stored in above-ground biomass is estimated to be 1.2 X 109 t. Rates of carbon fixation vary with forest age, species and site. Mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell.) forests fix around 9 t of carbon ha-1 annually during the first few years of growth, decreasing to 6 t ha-1 by age 10. Rates of carbon accumulation by other forests are generally less than this and, at the lower end of the range, box-ironbark forests, mallee and woodlands accumulate between 0.5 and 2 t ha-1 year-1. P. radiata plantations in Victoria will accumulate around 7 t carbon ha-1 year-1.