Outbreak Of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Research Articles

A validated real-time PCR test for simultaneous detection of Gallus gallus and Meleagris gallopavo in feed instead of an impossible poultry test

Description of the subject. Use of all processed animal proteins (PAPs) in animal feeds was banned in the EU due to the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). This total feed ban was progressively lifted for non-ruminant PAPs from 2013 onwards. Use of ruminant PAPs in feed remains totally prohibited. In order to extend the reintroduction of poultry PAPs in pig feed, and of pig PAPs in poultry feed, as recently decided, poultry species and pig detection tests were required to check that there is no intra-specific recycling. Objectives. In this study, we describe the official EURL-AP real-time PCR method for the simultaneous detection of chicken (Gallus gallus L.) and turkey (Meleagris gallopavo L.), the two most widely used poultry species in PAPs. Method. Classic quality criteria for the validation of a PCR method are considered. A cut-off is required for the interpretation of results. Transferability was tested through an interlaboratory study. Results. The developed PCR assay amplifies an 84 bp fragment encompassing the mitochondrial DNA on 12S ribosomal RNA, tRNA-Val and 16S ribosomal RNA sequences. The qualitative method was successfully assessed for several performance criteria: specificity, sensitivity, efficiency and robustness. The applicability of the test was verified on poultry PAPs and on compound feed containing 0.1% in mass fraction of poultry PAPs. An interlaboratory validation study demonstrated that the proposed real-time PCR method is transferable. Conclusions. The combined chicken-turkey real-time PCR assay is fit for the purpose of detecting poultry PAPs.

Monitoring the Sign & Symptoms of Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Among Patients with Multiple Myeloma Treated with Ixazomib Capsules in China: A Real-World Pharmacovigilance Survey

Introduction: Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) is a fatal and transmittable neurodegenerative disorder in humans, associated with ingestion of products from Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) affected cattle. 1 Since April 2018, Ixazomib is approved by National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) for the treatment of multiple myeloma (MM), in China. Before March 2019, the gelatin used for encapsulating ixazomibcapsules was sourced from countries with BSE outbreaks, although all the sources were fully complaint with regulations MM patients were still at risk for BSE, particularly vCJD. Definitive diagnosis of vCJD requires brain biopsy, which is a complex procedure with many complications. World Health Organization (WHO) has indicated a combination of signs and symptoms to assist in defining possible, probable, and definite vCJD cases. 2,3 Here we present phase-2 results from a retrospective analysis, conducted to describe physician-observed signs and symptoms, which may be related to vCJD in MM patients, treated with ixazomibbefore December 2019 in China. Methods: This multi-centre, cross-sectional, web-based survey was conducted in China. Licensed physicians who have prescribed ixazomibcapsules for MM patients before December 2019 and participated in the Phase 1 survey, titled attending or above, specialized in haematology or other related departments and practised in outpatient clinics once a week in the past six months were included. The primary objective was to describe physicians' observed signs and symptoms and the secondary objective was to describe physicians' concerns and awareness of signs and symptoms, which may be related to vCJD in MM patients treated with ixazomib. Eligible physicians completed an online questionnaire with closed-ended multiple-choice questions related to patients' clinical characteristics, responder characteristics, awareness on vCJD-related signs and symptoms, concern on vCJD risk, willingness to prescribe ixazomib in future. Physicians' concern about MM patients who have consumed contaminated ixazomibto get vCJD was measured on a 10-point scale, in which 0 stands for no concern while 10 stands for extremely concerned. Statistical analysis was performed using R, version 3.2 Results: A total of 311 valid questionnaires were received from 318 physicians. The baseline characteristics of respondents are depicted in Table 1. The mean (standard deviation) time of awareness on potential contamination was 19.1 (4.69) months. The average degree of concern decreased from 4.6 in phase 1 to 4.2 in phase 2, as measured on a 10-point scale and willingness to prescribe ixazomibhad increased from 70.1% to 87.8% , after knowing NINLARO ® capsule was sourced (produced before December 2019) from regions with BSE outbreak. A total of 288 respondents reported 1,485 deceased MM patients, who also received ixazomib before 2020. During phase 1, 7 respondents reported 17 patients, who were presented with at least 4 out of 5 prespecified symptoms for potential vCJD. Of which, 2 respondents reported that presented symptoms of 2 patients were caused by vCJD. However, in phase 2, all the 7 respondents have changed their opinion and reported no patient with at least 4 out of 5 prespecified symptoms for potential vCJD, this indicates the possibility of respondents developing better understanding of cVJD after phase 1. Further during phase 2, one respondent reported 2 new living patients presented with at least four of five pre-specified symptoms for potential vCJD and/or ixazomib. On further investigation, the respondent reported the symptoms were not related to vCJD and no tests were performed further to confirm a vCJD diagnosis, possibility of occurrence of these symptoms after phase 1 cannot be ruled out. Additionally, another respondent reported death of a patient that died due to severe diarrhea before reaching hospital. As per respondent, the death may be associated with NINLARO ® and not related to vCJD as the patient was prescribed with ixazomib before December 2019. Conclusion: This study indicates that the risk of vCJD was no longer a concerning factor for physicians and would no longer influence their willingness to prescribe ixazomib.

Insect-Based Feed Acceptance amongst Consumers and Farmers in Ireland: A Pilot Study

The potential of insect-based feed (IBF) as a sustainable alternative to conventional animal feed is widely reported, yet there is extremely limited information on its acceptance in Ireland, a country with a strong farming background. Therefore, this study aims to provide baseline data on factors affecting acceptance of IBF amongst a segment of consumers and farmers in Ireland. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected amongst 233 consumers, 73 of which were farmers. Non-parametric statistical tests revealed that the willingness to consume foods from animals fed with IBF depends on the type of food and is affected by a combination of consumer- and product-related factors. Consumers’ age, gender, diet, and education level, the foods’ packaging information, safety, and price, and whether insects are part of an animal’s natural diet or environmentally friendly had a significant effect. Safety concern regarding use of IBF was the main factor affecting farmers’ willingness to use it. Qualitative findings revealed concerns emanating from the bovine spongiform encephalopathy outbreak and a general need for more information. Accordingly, information on the benefits of using IBF increased its acceptance. Thus, IBF acceptance might depend on dedicated educational interventions which include addressing the safety aspect of the feed even among those with higher level of education.

Dynamic relationships among changes in prices of beef, pork, and chicken in Japan: A Bayesian approach

In this paper, we investigate the interdependence among changes in the prices of beef, pork, and chicken in Japan using a time-varying coefficient vector autoregressive model. Our empirical analysis using monthly data from January 1990 to March 2014 shows that changes in beef prices have long-term influences on changes in pork and chicken prices. Moreover, current changes in the prices of beef, pork, and chicken are closely related to changes in their prices in the preceding two months. Additionally, we do not find that the bovine spongiform encephalopathy outbreak announced by the Japanese government in September 2001 had a long-term influence on the dynamic relationships among changes in the prices of beef, pork, and chicken in Japan.

Long-term demographic dynamics of a keystone scavenger disrupted by human-induced shifts in food availability.

Scavenging is a key ecological process controlling energy flow in ecosystems and providing valuable ecosystem services worldwide. As long-lived species, the demographic dynamics of vultures can be disrupted by spatiotemporal fluctuations in food availability, with dramatic impacts on their population viability and the ecosystem services provided. In Europe, the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in 2001 prompted a restrictive sanitary regulation banning the presence of livestock carcasses in the wild on a continental scale. In long-lived vertebrate species, the buffering hypothesis predicts that the demographic traits with the largest contribution to population growth rate should be less temporally variable. The BSE outbreak provides a unique opportunity to test for the impact of demographic buffering in a keystone scavenger suffering abrupt but transient food shortages. We studied the 42-year dynamics (1979-2020) of one of the world's largest breeding colonies of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). We fitted an inverse Bayesian state-space model with density-dependent demographic rates to the time series of stage-structured abundances to investigate shifts in vital rates and population dynamics before, during, and after the implementation of a restrictive sanitary regulation. Prior to the BSE outbreak the dynamics was mainly driven by adult survival: 83% of temporal variance in abundance was explained by variability in this rate. Moreover, during this period the regulation of population size operated through density-dependent fecundity and subadult survival. However, after the onset of the European ban, a 1-month delay in average laying date, a drop in fecundity, and a reduction in the number of fledglings induced a transient increase in the impact of fledgling and subadult recruitment on dynamics. Although adult survival rate remained constantly high, as predicted by the buffering hypothesis, its relative impact on the temporal variance in abundance dropped to 71% during the sanitary regulation and to 54% after the ban was lifted. A significant increase in the relative impact of environmental stochasticity on dynamics was modeled after the BSE outbreak. These results provide empirical evidence on how abrupt environmental deterioration may induce dramatic demographic and dynamic changes in the populations of keystone scavengers, with far-reaching impacts on ecosystem functioning worldwide.

The utilisation of European processed animal proteins as safe, sustainable and circular ingredients for global aquafeeds

AbstractThe global increase in seafood demand has resulted in significant growth in aquaculture production in a wide range of aquatic species. Consequently, this has led to an industry‐wide need to find sustainable feed ingredients that would meet the nutritional requirements used in aquafeeds. The associated dependency on plant by‐products as the major alternatives has brought concerns to aquaculture through associated carbon footprint, increase deforestation and arable land use to meet the demands of plant proteins and oils, and the constraining effects of plant by‐products has on farmed aquatic animal growth and health. Animal by‐products (ABPs) are produced as a direct consequence of terrestrial animal production and the associated meat processing industries. The link between feeding meat and bone meal (MBM) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) outbreak in Europe during the 1980s resulted in a ban of its use animal feeds. This led to a radical overhaul of the rendering industry, including the use of only low‐risk ABP and the development of rendering processes to reduce the risk of prions that causes BSE to enter the food chain. The resulting processed animal proteins (PAPs) are considered safe to be used in farmed animal feeds. This review examines how ABP production has changed due to the BSE outbreak, leading to the current commercially available PAP products for aquafeed use. We evaluated how these products can be effectively used as viable protein sources in aquaculture and examine their limitations and the potential advancements that could lead to a more circular food production system.

Long‐run impacts of trade shocks and export competitiveness: Evidence from the U.S. BSE event

AbstractThis paper examines how comparative advantages of major beef exporters changed following the 2003 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) outbreak, which significantly disrupted the U.S. beef trade until approximately 2007. Using longitudinal data on beef export values and constructed revealed comparative advantage measures, we show that while some measures of the long‐run impacts of BSE on U.S. beef export competitiveness have returned to pre‐2003 levels, the U.S.’s comparative advantage has not. We also examine a hypothetical scenario of no BSE event in 2003 and predict that in the absence of the BSE outbreak, the U.S. beef sector would have been increasingly more competitive by 2017 than it actually was. Long‐term trade competitiveness may not simply return to normal even after a short‐term disruption.

Immunotherapy against Prion Disease.

The term “prion disease” encompasses a group of neurodegenerative diseases affecting both humans and animals. Currently, there is no effective therapy and all forms of prion disease are invariably fatal. Because of (a) the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans; (b) the heated debate about the prion hypothesis; and (c) the availability of a natural prion disease in rodents, the understanding of the pathogenic process in prion disease is much more advanced compared to that of other neurodegenerative disorders, which inspired many attempts to develop therapeutic strategies against these fatal diseases. In this review, we focus on immunotherapy against prion disease. We explain our rationale for immunotherapy as a plausible therapeutic choice, review previous trials using either active or passive immunization, and discuss potential strategies for overcoming the hurdles in developing a successful immunotherapy. We propose that immunotherapy is a plausible and practical therapeutic strategy and advocate more studies in this area to develop effective measures to control and treat these devastating disorders.

Assessment of risk of variant creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) from use of bovine heparin.

In the late1990s, reacting to the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the United Kingdom that caused a new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans, manufacturers withdrew bovine heparin from the market in the United States. There have been growing concerns about the adequate supply and safety of porcine heparin. Since the BSE epidemic has been declining markedly, the US Food and Drug Administration reevaluates the vCJD risk via use of bovine heparin. We developed a computational model to estimate the vCJD risk to patients receiving bovine heparin injections. The model incorporated information including BSE prevalence, infectivity levels in the intestines, manufacturing batch size, yield of heparin, reduction in infectivity by manufacturing process, and the dose-response relationship. The model estimates a median risk of vCJD infection from a single intravenous dose (10 000 USP units) of heparin made from US-sourced bovine intestines to be 6.9 × 10-9 (2.5-97.fifth percentile: 1.5 × 10-9 -4.3 × 10-8 ), a risk of 1 in 145 million, and 4.6 × 10-8 (2.5-97.fifth percentile: 1.1 × 10-8 -2.6 × 10-7 ), a risk of 1 in 22 million for Canada-sourced products. The model estimates a median risk of 1.4 × 10-7 (2.5-97.fifth percentile: 2.9 × 10-8 -9.3 × 10-7 ) and 9.6 × 10-7 (2.5-97.fifth percentile: 2.1 × 10-7 -5.6 × 10-6 ) for a typical treatment for venous thromboembolism (infusion of 2-4 doses daily per week) using US-sourced and Canada-sourced bovine heparin, respectively. The model estimates the vCJD risk from use of heparin when appropriately manufactured from US or Canadian cattle is likely small. The model and conclusions should not be applied to other medicinal products manufactured using bovine-derived materials.

Food Security, Safety, and Sustainability—Getting the Trade-Offs Right

The United Nations sustainable development goals include eradication of hunger. To feed10 billion persons 2050, we need to get the trade-offs right between sustainability, foodsecurity, food safety, and make better use of food already produced. The hierarchy ofstrategies for reducing food losses and waste are in descending order source reduction,reusing or reprocessing surplus foods, recycle food as feedfor animals, recover theenergy as biofuels, nutrients as compost, or raw materials for industry, while as lastresorts one may consider recovering the energy by incineration or dumping as garbagein landfills. This paper will explore the trade-offs inherent when aiming at triple goals ofsustainability, food security, and safety looking at thesestrategies for reducing food lossesand waste and resource footprints. Intensification of food production and circular foodsystems could be parts of these solutions to future food security. In this regard couldour future trade-offs be informed by the experiences from the use of antimicrobials tointensify food production and from the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy(BSE) in terms of circular food production? There is no trade-off between intensificationof food production aided by antimicrobials and the public health risks from antimicrobialresistance due to the zoo-technical use of antimicrobials.A sustainable future requirescontrol of antimicrobial resistance. If one avoids that cycles of nutrients become cycles ofpathogens and/or hazards, circular food production systems will a major contribution tothe future sustainable food security. Source reduction i.e., limiting food losses and wasteappears to the strategy most promising for achieving sustainability. By using artificialintelligence and intelligent packaging major progress is possible, with the added benefitof better control of food fraud. A changed diet—eating more plant-based foods and noteating animal protein produced by edible feedstuffs, and source reduction of the foodlost or wasted should enable us to feed at least an additionalbillion persons. Solutions tosustainability and food security should integrate food safety considerations from the start.

Japanese beef trade impact from BSE using a time‐varying Armington model

AbstractThis study examines the persistent impacts of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) outbreak in the United States on Japanese beef demands. An Armington model with time‐varying parameters allows us to separate BSE effects from other factors. A counter‐factual case estimates that, if the BSE outbreak had not occurred, demand for Australian beef would have been lower and demand for U.S. beef would have been higher, with domestic beef demand only modestly affected. The BSE outbreak affected imported frozen beef demands more than imported chilled beef demands. Our estimation method is relevant for researchers studying the impacts of disease‐related or other trade disruptions, as well as to traders and policy makers with interest in Japanese beef markets. [EconLit citations: F14, Q17].

History, development, and current status of food safety systems worldwide.

Immediately following the 1993 Jack-in-the-Box outbreak caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7, the United States began to look for a more robust regulatory food safety system than previously employed. In the same time frame in the United Kingdom, an outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) eroded public trust in the food safety systems of Western Europe. As a result, there was increased interest in implementing the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system worldwide. Although the ideas incorporated into HACCP principles were developed decades earlier, the 1990s saw a focus on implementation of the system throughout developed food production systems based on the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF)’s seven principles which were subsequently mostly adapted by Codex Alimentarious. During this period of time, there were increased governments and private companies that required HACCP implementation. In the United States alone, HACCP was estimated to reduce foodborne illness by 20% during the 7 yr after its implementation. During HACCP adoption, many food retail and foodservice purchasers also developed additional unique specifications that suppliers had to adhere to in order to market their products, the idea being to improve consumer confidence in food safety management systems. This resulted in creation of the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) system for benchmarking additional voluntary food safety management standards against preferred methods for reducing foodborne illnesses (first in Europe, and later adopted in the United States and globally) which reduced redundancy and helped us to bring global consistency to food safety. Although developed countries now mostly all adhere to core HACCP principles of food safety, ideas dealing with traceability, vulnerability to food fraud, and intentional adulteration are now being considered to further bolster food safety. On the other hand, developing countries appear to have had varied success in implementing similar food safety management systems, and many countries still struggle with high numbers of foodborne illnesses. At the broadest level, the HACCP system is a preventive-based method for assuring food product safety. Biological, physical, and chemical hazards can be prevented, reduced, or eliminated through this system. In addition to the management of hazards, record keeping demonstrating adherence to HACCP is included in the system.

Preparation, Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties of Acid- and Pepsin-Soluble Collagens from the Swim Bladders of Miiuy Croaker (Miichthys miiuy).

Collagen is one of the most useful biomaterials and widely applied in functional food and cosmetics. However, some consumers have paid close attention to the safety of mammalian collagens because of the outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), and other prion diseases. Therefore, there is a strong demand for developing alternative sources of collagen, with one promising source being from the process by-products of commercial fisheries. In this report, acid-soluble collagen (ASC-SB) and pepsin-soluble collagen (PSC-SB) from swim bladders of miiuy croaker (Miichthys miiuy) were isolated with yields of 1.33 ± 0.11% and 8.37 ± 0.24% of dry swim bladder weight. Glycine was the major amino acid present, with a content of 320.5 (ASC-SB) and 333.6 residues/1000 residues (PSC-SB). ASC-SB and PSC-SB had much lower denaturation temperatures compared to mammalian collagen, a consequence of low imino acid contents (196.7 and 199.5 residues/1000 residues for ASC-SB and PSC-SB, respectively). The data of amino acid composition, SDS-PAGE pattern, UV and FTIR spectra confirmed that ASC-SB and PSC-SB were mainly composed of type I collagen. FTIR spectra data indicated there were more hydrogen bonding and intermolecular crosslinks in ASC-SB. These collagens showed high solubility in the acidic pH ranges and low NaCl concentrations (less than 2%). The Zeta potential values of ASC-SB and PSC-SB were 6.74 and 6.85, respectively. ASC-SB and PSC-SB presented irregular, dense, sheet-like films linked by random-coiled filaments under scanning electron microscopy. In addition, ASC-SB and PSC-SB could scavenge DPPH radical, hydroxyl radical, superoxide anion radical, and ABTS radical in a dose-dependent manner. Overall, the results indicate that collagens from the swim bladders of miiuy croaker are a viable substitute for mammalian collagen, with potential functional food and cosmeceutical applications.

In Vitro Approach To Identify Key Amino Acids in Low Susceptibility of Rabbit Prion Protein to Misfolding.

Prion diseases, or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are a group of rare progressive neurodegenerative disorders caused by an abnormally folded prion protein (PrPSc). This is capable of transforming the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) into new infectious PrPSc Interspecies prion transmissibility studies performed by experimental challenge and the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy that occurred in the late 1980s and 1990s showed that while some species (sheep, mice, and cats) are readily susceptible to TSEs, others are apparently resistant (rabbits, dogs, and horses) to the same agent. To study the mechanisms of low susceptibility to TSEs of certain species, the mouse-rabbit transmission barrier was used as a model. To identify which specific amino acid residues determine high or low susceptibility to PrPSc propagation, protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA), which mimics PrPC-to-PrPSc conversion with accelerated kinetics, was used. This allowed amino acid substitutions in rabbit PrP and accurate analysis of misfolding propensities. Wild-type rabbit recombinant PrP could not be misfolded into a protease-resistant self-propagating isoform in vitro despite seeding with at least 12 different infectious prions from diverse origins. Therefore, rabbit recombinant PrP mutants were designed to contain every single amino acid substitution that distinguishes rabbit recombinant PrP from mouse recombinant PrP. Key amino acid residue substitutions were identified that make rabbit recombinant PrP susceptible to misfolding, and using these, protease-resistant misfolded recombinant rabbit PrP was generated. Additional studies characterized the mechanisms by which these critical amino acid residue substitutions increased the misfolding susceptibility of rabbit PrP.IMPORTANCE Prion disorders are invariably fatal, untreatable diseases typically associated with long incubation periods and characteristic spongiform changes associated with neuronal loss in the brain. Development of any treatment or preventative measure is dependent upon a detailed understanding of the pathogenesis of these diseases, and understanding the mechanism by which certain species appear to be resistant to TSEs is critical. Rabbits are highly resistant to naturally acquired TSEs, and even under experimental conditions, induction of clinical disease is not easy. Using recombinant rabbit PrP as a model, this study describes critical molecular determinants that confer this high resistance to transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.

1. Economic Impacts of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy in Canada and Europe And The Effect of Compensation Programs

Before the first domestic case of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) was identified in May 2003, Canada was the world’s third largest exporter of cattle behind the United States (U.S.) and Australia. After the BSE disclosure, the U.S. and 40 other countries imposed an immediate ban on imported Canadian beef and cattle products. The interdependence of the Canadian beef industry with that of the U.S. prior to the outbreak of BSE was a critical factor in Canada’s market vulnerability and the resulting economic impact. As the re-opening of the U.S. border was prolonged, beef producers adopted a variety of strategies to deal with the loss of income including refinancing existing loans and selling land or other assets. However these measures taken by individual farmers were not sufficient in completely supplementing their loss of income, thus creating a need for government funding and support. Little research has been done to assess the impact of government subsidies as a tool to offset the economic losses incurred by BSE. The analysis of the impacts of BSE and the resulting subsidies is extended to Britain, France, Germany and the European Union to see if government subsidies had a similar impact as compared to Canada. Analysis of existing literature shows the economic impacts to be heavily impacted by the structure of the beef industry and the subsidies to be impacted by consumption levels. The result of the subsidies is unclear; however due to lack of recent information the full analysis of the result of subsidy programs is difficult to determine.

Evaluation of the network of protection areas for the feeding of scavengers in Spain: from biodiversity conservation to greenhouse gas emission savings

Summary Protected areas are one of the most common strategies for wildlife conservation world‐wide. However, their effectiveness is rarely evaluated. In Europe, after the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, a restrictive sanitary regulation (EC 1774/2002) prohibited the abandonment of dead livestock in extensive farming (extensive livestock) in the field, which led to negative consequences for scavengers. As an attempt to mitigate this negative impact, a new regulation was approved (EC 142/2011) to allow farmers to leave extensive livestock carcasses in the so‐called ‘Protection areas for the feeding of necrophagous species of European interest’ (PAFs). Our general aims were to quantify (i) the proportion of breeding distribution of targeted scavenger species overlapping PAFs; (ii) the extensive livestock carrion biomass available inside PAFs; (iii) the proportion of breeding distribution of non‐targeted scavenger species falling within PAFs; (iv) the overlap between the home range of vultures and PAFs, as well as the extent to which vultures move through different administrative units; and (v) the savings in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in relation to the pre‐PAF scenario. After assessing the status of PAF implementation in every region of peninsular Spain, we analysed the large‐scale spatial information of extensive livestock carrion availability and scavenger breeding distribution, movement data of GPS‐tracked vultures, and the annual GHG emissions associated with the transport of livestock carcasses. Most regions established PAFs in their territories, although design criteria were variable. The breeding distribution of targeted species was better represented within PAFs than that of non‐targeted species. The extensive livestock carrion biomass potentially available for scavengers within PAFs represented 34·9% of the annual extensive livestock biomass generated in peninsular Spain. The overlap between the home range of GPS‐marked vulture populations and PAFs ranged between 63·4% and 100%. The minimum convex polygon of these and other GPS‐tracked vulture populations in peninsular Spain encompassed 3–14 Spanish regions and 1–4 countries. Post‐PAF there was a potential reduction of c. 55·7% of GHG emissions compared to pre‐PAF. Synthesis and applications. The implementation of the new sanitary regulation by means of areas for the feeding of scavengers could mean an important improvement in scavenger conservation and a noteworthy reduction in greenhouse gas emissions: in Spain, extensive livestock carrion availability might increase to 33 474 t yr−1, and 43 344 t of CO2 eq. might be saved annually. However, we identified some gaps related to the distribution of endangered facultative scavengers. Moreover, given that vultures are highly mobile organisms, the design and management of these feeding areas should be coordinated at both the supra‐regional and supra‐national scales.

Identification of Proteins and Peptide Biomarkers for Detecting Banned Processed Animal Proteins (PAPs) in Meat and Bone Meal by Mass Spectrometry.

The outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the United Kingdom in 1986, with processed animal proteins (PAPs) as the main vector of the disease, has led to their prohibition in feed. The progressive release of the feed ban required the development of new analytical methods to determine the exact origin of PAPs from meat and bone meal. We set up a promising MS-based method to determine the species and the source (legal or not) present in PAPs: a TCA-acetone protein extraction followed by a cleanup step, an in-solution tryptic digestion of 5 h (with a 1:20 protein/trypsin ratio), and mass spectrometry analyses, first without any a priori, with a Q-TOF, followed by a targeted triple-quadrupole analysis. Using this procedure, we were able to overcome some of the major limitations of the official methods to analyze PAPs, detecting and identifying prohibited animal products in feedstuffs by the monitoring of peptides specific for cows, pigs, and sheep in PAPs.

Subcritical Water Hydrolysis Effectively Reduces the In Vitro Seeding Activity of PrPSc but Fails to Inactivate the Infectivity of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Prions

The global outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has been attributed to the recycling of contaminated meat and bone meals (MBMs) as feed supplements. The use of MBMs has been prohibited in many countries; however, the development of a method for inactivating BSE prions could enable the efficient and safe use of these products as an organic resource. Subcritical water (SCW), which is water heated under pressure to maintain a liquid state at temperatures below the critical temperature (374°C), exhibits strong hydrolytic activity against organic compounds. In this study, we examined the residual in vitro seeding activity of protease-resistant prion protein (PrPSc) and the infectivity of BSE prions after SCW treatments. Spinal cord homogenates prepared from BSE-infected cows were treated with SCW at 230–280°C for 5–7.5 min and used to intracerebrally inoculate transgenic mice overexpressing bovine prion protein. Serial protein misfolding cyclic amplification (sPMCA) analysis detected no PrPSc in the SCW-treated homogenates, and the mice treated with these samples survived for more than 700 days without any signs of disease. However, sPMCA analyses detected PrPSc accumulation in the brains of all inoculated mice. Furthermore, secondary passage mice, which inoculated with brain homogenates derived from a western blotting (WB)-positive primary passage mouse, died after an average of 240 days, similar to mice inoculated with untreated BSE-infected spinal cord homogenates. The PrPSc accumulation and vacuolation typically observed in the brains of BSE-infected mice were confirmed in these secondary passage mice, suggesting that the BSE prions maintained their infectivity after SCW treatment. One late-onset case, as well as asymptomatic but sPMCA-positive cases, were also recognized in secondary passage mice inoculated with brain homogenates from WB-negative but sPMCA-positive primary passage mice. These results indicated that SCW-mediated hydrolysis was insufficient to eliminate the infectivity of BSE prions under the conditions tested.

Impacts of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and avian influenza on U.S. meat demand

This paper examines the U.S. meat demand impacts of the announced outbreaks of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and avian influenza (AI). Findings indicate that beef and chicken demand was negatively affected by BSE and AI disease outbreaks. Specifically, in the short run, U.S. consumers shift demand due to both outbreaks but more so due to domestic disease outbreaks than for outbreaks occurring overseas—the impact of U.S. AI outbreaks is about 0.5% for beef and the impact of U.S. BSE cases is around −0.42% for beef and 0.4% for pork, respectively. Regarding the BSE shock on meat demand, there is a high rate of beef demand adjusted from disturbance to the long-run equilibrium and a lower adjustment rate for chicken demand because of the repeated outbreaks of AI worldwide. In the long run, information related to severe, persistently recurring overseas animal disease outbreaks changes U.S. consumers' meat consumption patterns. Although effects of animal diseases on U.S. meat demand were statistically significant, the magnitudes were small—the impact of WHO reported human death numbers for AI is 0.005% for beef, −0.002% for pork, and −0.006% for chicken and the impact of U.S. BSE cases is 1.1% for pork and −0.7% for chicken.

Supplanting ecosystem services provided by scavengers raises greenhouse gas emissions.

Global warming due to human-induced increments in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG) is one of the most debated topics among environmentalists and politicians worldwide. In this paper we assess a novel source of GHG emissions emerged following a controversial policy decision. After the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in Europe, the sanitary regulation required that livestock carcasses were collected from farms and transformed or destroyed in authorised plants, contradicting not only the obligations of member states to conserve scavenger species but also generating unprecedented GHG emission. However, how much of this emission could be prevented in the return to traditional and natural scenario in which scavengers freely remove livestock carcasses is largely unknown. Here we show that, in Spain (home of 95% of European vultures), supplanting the natural removal of dead extensive livestock by scavengers with carcass collection and transport to intermediate and processing plants meant the emission of 77,344 metric tons of CO2 eq. to the atmosphere per year, in addition to annual payments of ca. $50 million to insurance companies. Thus, replacing the ecosystem services provided by scavengers has not only conservation costs, but also important and unnecessary environmental and economic costs.