Boreal Climate Research Articles

Systematics of a palaeoecologically significant boreal Mesozoic fossil wood genus, Xenoxylon Gothan

The genus Xenoxylon was established for gymnosperm-like fossil wood with xenoxylean radial pitting and large oopores in its cross-fields. It is restricted to the Mesozoic and to the Northern Hemisphere, where it is commonly found. As an indicator of cool-wet boreal climates, as suggested by its distribution, Xenoxylon is of special interest to palaeoclimatology. Its systematics, however, is poorly known with several species needing re-evaluation. Xenoxylon nomenclature is also still unresolved, with various synonyms used for the same taxa even in recent literature. Having reviewed several types and a large number of specimens we performed a taxonomical and nomenclatural reappraisal of all species known to date. The results of this review are presented here, together with a taxonomical key. For most taxa stratigraphical and geographical distributions have also been re-evaluated.

How will climate change modify river flow regimes in Europe?

Abstract. Worldwide, flow regimes are being modified by various anthropogenic impacts and climate change induces an additional risk. Rising temperatures, declining snow cover and changing precipitation patterns will interact differently at different locations. Consequently, in distinct climate zones, unequal consequences can be expected in matters of water stress, flood risk, water quality, and food security. In particular, river ecosystems and their vital ecosystem services will be compromised as their species richness and composition have evolved over long time under natural flow conditions. This study aims at evaluating the exclusive impacts of climate change on river flow regimes in Europe. Various flow characteristics are taken into consideration and diverse dynamics are identified for each distinct climate zone in Europe. In order to simulate present-day natural flow regimes and future flow regimes under climate change, the global hydrology model WaterGAP3 is applied. All calculations for current and future conditions (2050s) are carried out on a 5' × 5' European grid. To address uncertainty, bias-corrected climate forcing data of three different global climate models are used to drive WaterGAP3. Finally, the hydrological alterations of different flow characteristics are quantified by the Indicators of Hydrological Alteration approach. Results of our analysis indicate that on the European scale, climate change can be expected to modify flow regimes remarkably. This is especially the case in the Mediterranean (due to drier conditions with reduced precipitation across the year) and in the boreal climate zone (due to reduced snowmelt, increased precipitation, and strong temperature rises). In the temperate climate zone, impacts increase from oceanic to continental. Regarding single flow characteristics, strongest impacts on timing were found for the boreal climate zone. This applies for both high and low flows. Flow magnitudes, in turn, will be predominantly altered in the Mediterranean but also in the Northern climates. At the end of this study, typical future flow regimes under climate change are illustrated for each climate zone.

Lighting characteristics during the polar day and their impact on changes in melatonin secretion

People traveling between climate zones can be exposed to extreme environmental stimuli which significantly differ from their place of habitual residence. A move from the temperate climate of Central Europe to the subpolar climate of northern Europe means exposure to great changes in two climate parameters: lighting and biothermal characteristics. The sudden change of solar radiation, temperature, wind and humidity, force the organism to undergo intensive adaptation processes. While the change in lighting conditions involves a diurnal rhythm adaptation of the physiological clock (regulated by the hormone melatonin), the change of biothermal factors (represented by UTCI) produce additional stress on the strongly loaded human organism. The field experiment was carried out in Poland and Norway so the impact of the selected radiation stimuli on melatonin production could be carried out in conditions of natural constant lighting. The paper presents the results of the preliminary analysis of our research conducted from 22 May to 12 June 2011. The distribution of daily outdoor photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intensity, which is a spectral distribution of solar visible radiation in selected times of the day were analyzed. Lighting conditions surrounding each subject (doses of reached energy of visible solar radiation and illumination intensity) were examined as well. Additional adaptation stress caused by different biothermal conditions (expressed by UTCI index) was also taken into consideration. Diurnal melatonin concentrations were determined in saliva samples.

Fluxes of nitrous oxide in tilled and no-tilled boreal arable soils

Agricultural management practices can have a significant effect on the emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils. The aim of this 2-year study was to investigate the effects of no-till (NT) and reduced tillage (RT) practices on annual fluxes of N2O from different soil types typical for the boreal region of northern Europe. We measured the fluxes of N2O in conventional tillage (CT) and NT at four sites of which two also had RT treatment. No-till and RT practices had been implemented 8–10 years before our study was initiated. Chamber measurements were carried out fortnightly in 2008–2010 on clayey (sites 1–3) and coarse (site 4) soils. Annual cumulative emissions of N2O varied from 2.4 to 8.3 in CT, 2.5–6.5 in RT and 4.9–10.2kgN2O-Nha−1 in NT. High peaks in measured N2O fluxes occurred during and after thawing of the soil in April and after fertilization and high rain events. No-till or RT did not have any significant effects on soil C or N stocks or potential denitrification of the 0–20cm soil layer. Dry bulk density and water-filled pore space (WFPS) were generally higher under NT compared to CT, most probably being the main reasons for the increased N2O emissions in the NT systems. Soil temperature varied less in NT by being higher during the colder periods of the year and slightly cooler during hot summer days. In conclusion, our results indicate that NT induces a risk of increased N2O emissions in clayey soils in small grain spring cereal agroecosystems in Northern European boreal climate.

Carbon stocks in four forest stands in Sweden 25 years after harvesting of slash and stumps

The long-term effect of slash and stump harvesting on carbon (C) stocks in soil, tree biomass, and total ecosystem were studied in four field experiments that commenced in 1980–1982 along a climatic gradient from north to south Sweden. The treatments consisted of complete tree harvesting, i.e., harvesting of slash, stumps, and stems (SSS); harvesting of stumps and stems, but leaving logging residues on site (SS); and, conventional stem-only harvesting (S). The northern site with Pinus sylvestris represented a relatively harsh, boreal climate (N-pine). Two additional sites were established in south-central Sweden with Picea abies (M-spruce) and Pinus sylvestris (M-pine) in a south-boreal climate. The fourth site with Picea abies (S-spruce) was established in south-west Sweden in the temperate zone.Ecosystem C stock in tree and soil was lower after SSS than after SS and S, however, there was no significant difference between S and SS.The treatment effect on C stock in tree biomass was site-specific rather than general. Stump-harvest (SS, SSS) increased C stock in N-pine, whereas a decrease was only observed for SSS in M-spruce. A logical explanation for the decreased C stock was the increased nutrient removal caused by harvest intensity. However, this could be counteracted by an increase in release of nutrients from the organic layer and a decrease in competition from the field vegetation promoted by soil disturbance due to stump harvesting.Soil C stock was lower after SSS than after S, due to lower C content in the organic layer after SSS (12Mgha−1) than S (18Mgha−1): no difference was detected in the mineral soil (0–20cm). Soil C stocks after SS did not differ from S and SSS, but were lower in the organic soil layer after SS than after S.These results implied that stump harvest caused a lower C stock in the soil organic layer, 25years after the harvest. However, this study did not show whether this difference would remain over time as remaining stumps and logging residues continue to decompose and the regenerated stand develops. The effects on the C stock in trees appear site- or time specific. More studies are needed to investigate the factors that control this stock, and the final carbon balance should be evaluated over at least one rotation period.

A short-term climate oscillation during the Holsteinian interglacial (MIS 11c): An analogy to the 8.2 ka climatic event?

To gain insights into the mechanisms of abrupt climate change within interglacials, we have examined the characteristics and spatial extent of a prominent, climatically induced vegetation setback during the Holsteinian interglacial (Marine Isotope Stage 11c). Based on analyses of pollen and varves of lake sediments from Dethlingen (northern Germany), this climatic oscillation, here termed the “Older Holsteinian Oscillation” (OHO), lasted 220years. It can be subdivided into a 90-year-long decline of temperate tree taxa associated with an expansion of Pinus and herbs, and a 130-year-long recovery phase marked by the expansion of Betula and Alnus, and the subsequent recovery of temperate trees. The climate-induced nature of the OHO is corroborated by changes in diatom assemblages and δ18O measured on biogenic silica indicating an impact on the aquatic ecosystem of the Dethlingen paleolake. The OHO is widely documented in pollen records from Europe north of 50° latitude and is characterized by boreal climate conditions with cold winters from the British Isles to Poland, with a gradient of decreasing temperature and moisture availability, and increased continentality towards eastern Europe. This pattern points to a weakened influence of the westerlies and/or a stronger influence of the Siberian High. A comparison of the OHO with the 8.2ka event of the Holocene reveals close similarities regarding the imprint on terrestrial ecosystems and the interglacial boundary conditions. Hence, in analogy to the 8.2ka event, a transient, meltwater-induced slowdown of the North Atlantic Deep Water formation appears as a plausible trigger mechanism for the OHO. If correct, meltwater release into the North Atlantic may be a more common agent of abrupt climate change during interglacials than previously thought. We conclude that meltwater-induced climate setbacks during interglacials preferentially occurred when low rates of summer insolation increase during the preceding terminations facilitated the persistence of large-scale continental ice-sheets well into the interglacials.

Rapid switches in subpolar North Atlantic hydrography and climate during the Last Interglacial (MIS 5e)

At the peak of the previous interglacial period, North Atlantic and subpolar climate shared many features in common with projections of our future climate, including warmer‐than‐present conditions and a diminished Greenland Ice Sheet (GIS). Here we portray changes in North Atlantic hydrography linked with Greenland climate during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5e using (sub)centennially sampled records of planktonic foraminiferal isotopes and assemblage counts and ice‐rafted debris counts, as well as modern analog technique and Mg/Ca‐based paleothermometry. We use the core MD03‐2664 recovered from a high accumulation rate site (∼34 cm/kyr) on the Eirik sediment drift (57°26.34′N, 48°36.35′W). The results indicate that surface waters off southern Greenland were ∼3–5°C warmer than today during early MIS 5e. These anomalously warm sea surface temperatures (SSTs) prevailed until the isotopic peak of MIS 5e when they were interrupted by a cooling event beginning at ∼126 kyr BP. This interglacial cooling event is followed by a gradual warming with SSTs subsequently plateauing just below early MIS 5e values. A planktonic δ18O minimum during the cooling event indicates that marked freshening of the surface waters accompanied the cooling. We suggest that switches in the subpolar gyre hydrography occurred during a warmer climate, involving regional changes in freshwater fluxes/balance and East Greenland Current influence in the study area. The nature of these hydrographic transitions suggests that they are most likely related to large‐scale circulation dynamics, potentially amplified by GIS meltwater influences.

Size-mediated tree transpiration along soil drainage gradients in a boreal black spruce forest wildfire chronosequence

Boreal forests are crucial to climate change predictions because of their large land area and ability to sequester and store carbon, which is controlled by water availability. Heterogeneity of these forests is predicted to increase with climate change through more frequent wildfires, warmer, longer growing seasons and potential drainage of forested wetlands. This study aims at quantifying controls over tree transpiration with drainage condition, stand age and species in a central Canadian black spruce boreal forest. Heat dissipation sensors were installed in 2007 and data were collected through 2008 on 118 trees (69 Picea mariana (Mill.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb. (black spruce), 25 Populus tremuloides Michx. (trembling aspen), 19 Pinus banksiana Lamb. (jack pine), 3 Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch (tamarack) and 2 Salix spp. (willow)) at four stand ages (18, 43, 77 and 157 years old) each containing a well- and poorly-drained stand. Transpiration estimates from sap flux were expressed per unit xylem area, J(S), per unit ground area, E(C) and per unit leaf area, E(L), using sapwood (A(S)) and leaf (A(L)) area calculated from stand- and species-specific allometry. Soil drainage differences in transpiration were variable; only the 43- and 157-year-old poorly-drained stands had ∼ 50% higher total stand E(C) than well-drained locations. Total stand E(C) tended to decrease with stand age after an initial increase between the 18- and 43-year-old stands. Soil drainage differences in transpiration were controlled primarily by short-term physiological drivers such as vapor pressure deficit and soil moisture whereas stand age differences were controlled by successional species shifts and changes in tree size (i.e., A(S)). Future predictions of boreal climate change must include stand age, species and soil drainage heterogeneity to avoid biased estimates of forest water loss and latent energy exchanges.

Production costs of biodiversity zones on field and forest margins: A case study in Finland

This paper estimates and compares the costs incurred to a private landowner from establishing and managing 25-m wide biodiversity zones on field and forest margins in southern Finland. Crop and timber prices being at their long-term averages, current agricultural support paid and the real discount rate 3%, the average annual net costs per hectare of field and forest biodiversity zones were €30ha(-1) and €108ha(-1), respectively, the field zones being the less costly alternative in 95% of cases. This result is mainly due to the poor productivity of field cultivation relative to timber production under boreal climate conditions. In addition to soil quality, the initial stand structure affects the costs of both biodiversity zone types. It is less costly for a landowner to establish biodiversity zones in forests where no final felling is imminent but which already contain some tree volume. In field biodiversity zones, costs are slightly lower on fields where forest shading is great. Uneven-aged management practiced in forest biodiversity zones was found to lead to a 3-32% reduction in the net present value of forest land compared to conventional forest management. An increase in the real discount rate increases the relative efficiency of forest biodiversity zones.

On the influence of shrub height and expansion on northern high latitude climate

There is a growing body of empirical evidence documenting the expansion of shrub vegetation in the circumpolar Arctic in response to climate change. Here, we conduct a series of idealized experiments with the Community Climate System Model to analyze the potential impact on boreal climate of a large-scale tundra-to-shrub conversion. The model responds to an increase in shrub abundance with substantial atmospheric heating arising from two seasonal land–atmosphere feedbacks: a decrease in surface albedo and an evapotranspiration-induced increase in atmospheric moisture content. We demonstrate that the strength and timing of these feedbacks are sensitive to shrub height and the time at which branches and leaves protrude above the snow. Taller and aerodynamically rougher shrubs lower the albedo earlier in the spring and transpire more efficiently than shorter shrubs. These mechanisms increase, in turn, the strength of the indirect sea-ice albedo and ocean evaporation feedbacks contributing to additional regional warming. Finally, we find that an invasion of tall shrubs tends to systematically warm the soil, deepen the active layer, and destabilize the permafrost (with increased formation of taliks under a future scenario) more substantially than an invasion of short shrubs.

Local plant species replace initially sown species on roadsides in the Swiss National Park

Protected areas in the Alps are dissected by high-traffic roads for tourist access and transit. Road construction leaves disturbed areas with open soil, which may serve as starting points for the invasion of alien plants or ruderal lowland plants into the protected mountain habitats. In the 1960s, a transit road was widened in the Swiss National Park (SNP) and disturbed roadsides were sown with mixtures of grassland species. Roadside development and vegetation dynamics in the adjacent subalpine pine (Pinus mugo) forest were monitored in permanent plots from 1969 till 2010. Over the 42-year monitoring period, the sown species disappeared progressively and were replaced by species from naturally disturbed areas as well as by forest species. A standard seed mixture and native seeds introduced with local hay developed similarly. Sown species did not expand into the natural habitats and no alien species colonized the roadsides, despite the long-term persistence of open soil. The impact of roadsides on the local flora was therefore minimal. Ecological indicator values suggest that the development of roadsides in the SNP was determined by harsh conditions resulting from a continental subalpine climate and poorly developed soils on dolomite. Therefore, the developments observed in the SNP and the proposed low impact of roadsides on the natural vegetation may not hold for other Alpine regions with different geology and a more oceanic climate.

Effect of climate therapy and rehabilitation in Mátra Medical Institute

Our research we organised at the Mátra Medical Institute in Mátraháza and Kékestetô among sick of asthma, COPD and hayfever. Our aim was to prove the effect of climate therapy in the Mátra Medical Institute. The subalpine climate to plays a very important role in the cure of the Respiratory diseases, because to improve the life quality of the sick and reduce the medicine uses afther the therapy. Our researche took part more than 100 respiratory diseased. We analyse the data with SPSS.version16. We measure average, standard deviation, Chi²probe, t-probe.You can see our results in the article.

Enzymatic accessibility of fiber hemp is enhanced by enzymatic or chemical removal of pectin

Pectinolytic enzymes, steam explosion and alkaline treatment were used to assess the role of pectin for the accessibility of hydrolytic enzymes in the enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), a potential energy crop especially in boreal climate with a low need of fertilizers, was used in the study either as untreated or anaerobically preserved raw material. Addition of pectinases increased the hydrolysis yield by 26%, 54%, and 64% from the theoretical carbohydrates of untreated, acid, and alkali-preserved materials, respectively. Steam explosion and hot alkali treatment increased the conversion of the total carbohydrates by 78% and 60%, respectively, compared to the untreated hemp. Elevated separation of cells within the hemp stalk tissues and an increased surface area was revealed after hot alkali or pectinase treatments, contributing to the increased conversion to sugars by commercial enzymes.

Quantifying the influence of climate and biological drivers on the interannual variability of carbon exchanges in European forests through process-based modelling

It is necessary to increase our understanding of the influence of climate and biological drivers on the interannual variations in carbon (C) exchange between forests and the atmosphere. To this aim, a process-based model (CASTANEA) was used for simulating C exchanges over four European forests, encompassing a broad latitudinal gradient (from Mediterranean to boreal climate zones), for the years 2000–2007. CASTANEA reproduced 74–95% of the daily and 35–84% of the annual variance in daytime net ecosystem productivity (NEP). Constrained simulations allowed us to isolate the individual contributions of climatic drivers (radiation, temperature and relative humidity), hydrological drivers (soil water) and biological drivers (canopy dynamics, the thermal acclimation of photosynthetic capacities in evergreens, and vegetative and microbial C pools) to the anomalies in C exchange for timescales ranging from daily to annual. Orthonormal wavelet transformation of these single-contribution time series allowed us to quantify the individual drivers’ influences on flux variance across time scales. High frequency departures from mean annual C exchange patterns were mostly caused by hydroclimate modulations (87–99% of the flux variance from daily to weekly scales). The integration of these anomalies at the annual scale yielded a higher contribution of biological drivers: we identified a primary controller of gross primary production (GPP) variations through modulations of soil water in both the Mediterranean Quercus ilex and the temperate Fagus sylvatica forests; we also identified at the annual scale a complex determinism for both coniferous sites, with an unexpectedly higher contribution of the thermal acclimation driver at the temperate (warmer) site. Although all but one site experienced structural perturbations during the study period, interannual variations in ecosystem respiration (Reco) were readily related to changes in temperature and soil water, with a low contribution from variations in C pools at the annual scale. As a result of the preponderant dependence of net ecosystem production (NEP) on GPP fluxes, the inferred determinism of simulated net exchanges appeared similar to that of GPP. However, compensations occurred, leading, for example, to a much lower influence of soil water modulations on NEP than on GPP or Reco at the Mediterranean site.

Development of weighting factors for climate variables for selecting the energy reference year according to the EN ISO 15927-4 standard

This paper presents a new method for selecting the energy reference year, which may be used for many applications, such as the energy performance of buildings, the simulation of active or passive solar energy systems, HVAC system performance or indoor climate analyses. The EN ISO 15927-4 method was modified by using monthly dependent weighting factors for the main climatic parameters in the calculation of heating and cooling energy demand in buildings. We used data from the cold Finnish boreal climate to demonstrate the method. In a cold boreal climate, during the summer temperature and solar radiation have a similar influence on heating and cooling energy demand, whereas air humidity and wind speed have a minor effect. The principle for determining the weighting factors and modified method for the selection of the energy reference year can also be used for other climatic zones. The weighting factors determined in this study can be used for other countries in a cold climatic area.

Edaphic influences of ophiolitic substrates on vegetation in the Western Italian Alps

Soils derived from serpentinite (serpentine soils) often have low macronutrient concentrations, exceedingly low Ca:Mg molar ratios and high heavy metal concentrations, typically resulting in sparse vegetative cover. This combined suite of edaphic stresses is referred to as the “serpentine syndrome.” Although several plant community-level studies have been conducted to identify the most important edaphic factor limiting plant growth on serpentine, the primary factor identified has often varied by plant community and local climate. Few studies to date have been conducted in serpentine plant communities of alpine or boreal climates. The goal of our study was to determine the primary limiting edaphic factors on plant community species composition and productivity (cover) in the alpine and boreal climate of the Western Alps, Italy. Soil properties and vegetation composition were analyzed for several sites underlain by serpentinite, gabbro, and calc-schist substrates and correlated using direct and indirect statistical methods. Boreal forest soils were well-developed and tended to have low pH throughout the soil profile resulting in high Ni availability. Alpine soils, in comparison, were less developed. The distinct serpentine plant communities of the Western Alps are most strongly correlated with high levels of bioavailable Ni associated with low soil pH. Other factors such as macronutrient deficiency, low Ca:Mg molar ratio and drought appear to be less important. The strong ecological influence of Ni is caused by environmental conditions which increase metal mobilization.

Natural plant colonization of borrow pits in boreal forest highlands of eastern Canada

Plant colonization after gravel extraction for road construction is slow and is often considered to be primary succession. The goal of this study was to identify the plant communities that spontaneously colonized borrow pits located in boreal climate zones and to assess how environmental variables influenced this colonization process. It also helped identifying potential combinations of plants to use as well as environmental factors to improve to restore borrow pits. A total of 505 plots were inventoried in 117 borrow pits located in the boreal forest highlands 120 km northeast of Quebec City, Quebec, Canada (Parc national des Grands Jardins). Species cover was visually estimated for different plant communities within each borrow pit where slope and soil characteristics were also evaluated. We used multivariate analyses, including clustering, redundancy, and regression tree analyses. The borrow pits studied were undergoing primary succession processes decades after abandonment. The main pioneer species were bryophytes and lichens. Soil water content and soil physicochemistry had the greatest influence on the natural colonization of borrow pits. We observed that, based on the prevailing conditions, the bryophytes Polytrichum piliferum Hedw. and Niphotrichum canescens (Hedw.) Bednarek-Ochyra & Ochyra, lichens of the genus Stereocaulon , and the lichen Trapeliopsis granulosa (Hoffm.) Lumbsch could potentially act as nurse species and could initiate the restoration of borrow pits located in boreal forests.

Evaluation of annual bioenergy crops in the boreal zone for biogas and ethanol production

Three annual plant species, maize, hemp and faba bean were tested for suitability as dedicated biomass crops in Boreal conditions. Biomass yields were 10–15 t ha-1. The crops were analyzed for their composition and tested as raw materials for conversion to methane and to fermentable sugars. The methane yield was 379 ± 16 Ndm3 kg−1 VS−1 from maize, 387 ± 20 Ndm3 kg−1 VS−1 from faba bean and 239 ± 9 Ndm3 kg−1 VS−1 from hemp. Based on the yield per hectare, maize proved to be the most potential raw material source for methane production. Analogous to methane production, maize was the most productive raw material also in standard hydrolysis tests, with a conversion yield of about 80% of the theoretical sugars. Based on the amount of carbohydrates, the highest theoretical yield per hectare was obtained with hemp. However, considering all parameters, including the need for weeding and fertilizers, all three crops studied proved to be attractive options for cultivation in boreal conditions as well as being used as energy crops in boreal climate.

Regional climate variability in the western subtropical North Atlantic during the past two millennia

[1] Western subtropical North Atlantic oceanic and atmospheric circulations connect tropical and subpolar climates. Variations in these circulations can generate regional climate anomalies that are not reflected in Northern Hemisphere averages. Assessing the significance of anthropogenic climate change at regional scales requires proxy records that allow recent trends to be interpreted in the context of long‐term regional variability. We present reconstructions of Gulf Stream sea surface temperature (SST) and hydrographic variability during the past two millennia based on the magnesium/calcium ratio and oxygen isotopic composition of planktic foraminifera preserved in two western subtropical North Atlantic sediment cores. Reconstructed SST suggests low‐frequency variability of ∼1°C during an interval that includes the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). A warm interval near 1250 A.D. is distinct from regional and hemispheric temperature, possibly reflecting regional variations in ocean‐atmosphere heat flux associated with changes in atmospheric circulation (e.g., the North Atlantic Oscillation) or the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Seawater d 18 O, which is marked by a fresher MCA and a more saline LIA, covaries with meridional migrations of the Atlantic Intertropical Convergence Zone. The northward advection of tropical salinity anomalies by mean surface currents provides a plausible mechanism linking Carolina Slope and tropical Atlantic hydrology.

Globale Walderhaltung und -bewirtschaftung und ihre Finanzierung: eine Bestandesaufnahme | Global forest conservation and management and its financing: an appraisal

Around one third of the earth's surface is under forest cover which is distributed more or less equally between industrialised and developing countries. Whereas forest areas in the temperate and boreal climate zones are more or less stable or on the increase, the scale of deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics remains dramatic. This situation is likely to continue in the decades to come because the world's ever-growing population needs new agricultural land and the pressure on resources (forest products, land, water, minerals) continues to increase as a result of globalisation and global change. Moreover, sustainable forest management has not yet become standard practice in many southern countries because forest management can rarely compete with other forms of land use in terms of economic returns. The protection and sustainable management of forest resources is basically the responsibility of each individual country and cannot be regulated and financed globally. However, enormous financial resources, i.e. on a scale of tens of billions of Swiss francs per year, are required for the introduction of comprehensive land-use planning in developing countries incorporating suitable protection of natural forests and sustainable forest management. New approaches for the valorisation of services provided by forests such as carbon sinks (e.g. REDD+) offer significant potential for improving forest protection and sustainable forest management. It augurs well that the economic internalisation of the forest and its services is in full swing at global level and that, based on the REDD+ resolutions passed at the last climate conference in Cancún, many countries have opted for the path of forest conservation and sustainable forest management.