Bony Procedures Research Articles

Midterm Results of Comprehensive Surgical Reconstruction Including Sulcus-Deepening Trochleoplasty in Recurrent Patellar Dislocations With High-Grade Trochlear Dysplasia

Background: Trochlear dysplasia is one of the most consistent anatomic factors that can lead to recurrent patellar dislocations. Various trochleoplasty procedures have been described to treat patellar dislocations in high-grade dysplasia by creating a new congruent trochlea. Purpose: To present the midterm efficacy and outcome of the sulcus-deepening trochleoplasty procedure in patients with recurrent patellar dislocations due to high-grade trochlear dysplasia. The clinical evaluation results, the amount of radiological correction, and the prevalence of arthritis were recorded. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A total of 27 skeletally mature patients (31 knees) with recurrent patellar dislocations due to high-grade trochlear dysplasia without any previous surgery were retrospectively included from September 1993 to September 2006. All patients underwent sulcus-deepening trochleoplasty combined with a bony and/or soft tissue procedure according to concomitant etiological factors to patellar dislocations: medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction (16.1%), vastus medialis obliquus plasty (83.8%), tibial tuberosity distalization (51.6%), tibial tuberosity medialization (67.7%), and lateral retinaculum release (67.6%). Mean follow-up was 7 years (range, 2-9 years). Results: The mean sulcus angle decreased significantly (P < .01) from 152° ± 16° preoperatively to 141° ± 9° postoperatively, tibial tuberosity–trochlear groove distance decreased significantly (P < .001) from 19 ± 4 mm to 12 ± 5 mm, and patellar tilt decreased significantly (P < .001) from 37° ± 7° to 15° ± 8°. No recurrence was observed, and there was no case of stiffness. Apprehension signs remained positive in 19.3% of the cases, patellar tracking was normal in all cases, and the lateral patellar glide test finding was negative in 96.8%. The mean preoperative International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) score was 51 (range, 25-80), and the mean postoperative IKDC score was 82 (range, 40-100) (P < .001), while the mean Kujala score improved from a preoperative 59 (range, 28-81) to 87 (range, 49-100) postoperatively (P < .001). There was no radiographic evidence of patellofemoral arthritis at the latest follow-up. Conclusion: Sulcus-deepening trochleoplasty is a valid option for the primary surgical treatment of carefully selected patients with recurrent patellar dislocations with high-grade trochlear dysplasia type B and D. Concomitant etiological factors must be cautiously corrected in an associated procedure. Midterm follow-up showed satisfactory restoration of patellar stability and improvement of knee scores with no complication of subsequent arthritis.

Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction

Background: Medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) reconstruction is a routine procedure for patellar instability. The majority of the techniques require hardware fixation or a bony procedure at the patella. However, most of the complications described in the literature can be attributed to patellar fixation. The “superficial quad technique” uses the superficial slip of the quadriceps tendon as the graft material, which provides a better anatomic match to the native MPFL. Hypothesis: The superficial quad technique provides anatomic patellar fixation without a bony procedure and without patellar complications. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: The study included 32 patients (10 male, 22 female; mean age, 25 years) who underwent MPFL reconstruction using the superficial quad technique and who were followed for a mean duration of 38 months. Objective assessment was performed and Kujala scores were obtained preoperatively and at the time of final follow-up. Results: There were no patellar complications, including redislocation, in the present study. The mean Kujala score improved to 91.25 (range, 73-100) from a preoperative score of 49.31 (range, 23-62). Conclusion: The results were comparable with those of other studies in the literature that used hamstring grafts, but without associated patellar complications. The superficial quad technique uses graft material that is a better anatomic match to the native MPFL. It provides anatomic patellar fixation without a bony procedure.

Short-Term Radiographic Analysis of Operative Correction of Adult Acquired Flatfoot Deformity

Multiple procedures have been described to treat stage II (flexible) deformities driven by the clinical presence of "mild" versus "severe" deformity. The purpose of this study was to identify the radiographic correction after bony realignment procedures and to compare preoperative measures with postoperative measures to better understand the clinical application of these procedures. Seventy-two feet in 68 patients treated for stage II deformity between January 1999 and December 2010 were available for retrospective chart review. The average age of the patients was 55 years, and final radiographs were evaluated at an average of 9 months postoperatively. All patients had a flexor digitorum longus transfer to the navicular and bony realignment. Radiographic parameters measured included lateral talus-first metatarsal angle, medial cuneiform-floor distance, calcaneal pitch, anteroposterior talus-second metatarsal angle, and talonavicular coverage angle. Differences in pre- and postoperative measurements and between group comparisons were analyzed. Three patient groups were identified: medial displacement calcaneal osteotomy (group 1), lateral column lengthening (group 2), and both medial displacement calcaneal osteotomy and lateral column lengthening (group 3). The lateral talus-first metatarsal angle mean difference was 5.1 degrees in group 1, 16.2 degrees in group 2, and 16.5 degrees in group 3. The talonavicular coverage angle mean difference was 5.7 degrees in group 1, 24.2 degrees in group 2, and 19.4 degrees in group 3. Changes in pre- to postoperative measures were statistically significant for all groups for the parameters measured. The pairwise group comparison revealed a statistically significant difference in the correction obtained in group 3 compared with that of group 1. Clinical and radiographic parameters are a consideration when choosing bony realignment procedures to reconstruct a flexible flatfoot deformity. In the treatment of more severe deformities, lateral column lengthening resulted in a greater radiographic improvement in alignment. A medial displacement osteotomy alone is also a valuable tool to correct these deformities although it provided a different level of correction compared with the lateral column lengthening. Level III, comparative case series.

Glenoid and humeral head bone loss in traumatic anterior glenohumeral instability: a systematic review

The aim of this systematic review is to analyze outcomes of surgical procedures for glenoid and/or humeral bony defects, performed singularly or in combination, in patients with traumatic anterior glenohumeral instability. A secondary aim is to establish in clinical settings which percentage of glenoid or humeral bone loss needs to be treated with a bony procedure to avoid recurrence of dislocation. A systematic review of the literature according to the PRISMA guidelines was performed. A comprehensive search of PubMed, Medline, CINAHL, Cochrane, Embase and Google Scholar databases using various combinations of the keywords "shoulder", "instability", "dislocation", "bone loss", "bony bankart", "osseous glenoid defects", "glenoid bone grafting", "Latarjet", "glenoid", "humeral head", "surgery", "glenohumeral", "Hill Sachs", "Remplissage", over the years 1966-2012 was performed. Twenty-seven articles, describing patients with glenoid bony defect, humeral bony defect or both in the setting of traumatic anterior glenohumeral instability, were included. A total of 1,816 shoulders in 1,801 patients were included, with a median age at surgery of 27.1 years, ranging from 12 to 75 years. Patients were assessed at a median follow-up period of 2.8 years (ranging from 6 months to 28.2 years). The overall recurrence of redislocation occurred in 117 (6.5 %) shoulders. The redislocation event occurred in 40 of 553 (7.2 %) shoulders with glenoid bony defect, in 30 of 225 (13.3 %) shoulders with humeral bony defect and in 63 of 1,009 (6.3 %) shoulders with both glenoid and humeral involvement. Even though the general principle of recognizing and treating glenoid and humeral bone defects in patients with traumatic anterior glenohumeral instability is widely accepted, few studies are available to date to accurately establish which bone defects should be treated with bone procedures and the exact percentage of bone loss leading to higher risk of redislocation in clinical settings.

Long-term Results of Treatment of Congenital Idiopathic Clubfoot in 187 Feet

Two main options for treatment of congenital idiopathic clubfoot are the "French" functional method and the Ponseti method. The goal of this article was to evaluate the results of the functional treatment method, which, if necessary, is completed by a surgical release. A series of 187 feet (129 patients) underwent functional conservative treatment. At first evaluation, the feet were classified according to the classification of Dimeglio. All patients then underwent daily physiotherapy and splintage, which was progressively stopped during childhood. Among these 187 feet, 85 feet (45.5%) required soft-tissue release to correct the remaining deformity. Surgery, when required, consisted of a complete posterolateral and medial release procedure, combined with a lengthening of the tibialis anterior tendon in most cases and a bony lateral procedure in case of forefoot adduction. At the latest follow-up (14.7 y; range, 7.4 to 23 y), results were "good" or "very good" in almost 98% of feet, according to the Ghanem and Seringe score. Severe feet at first consultation showed a worse result and required surgery more often than did the less severe ones. Among nonoperated feet, very good results were found in 99% of feet, and none had a fair or bad result. The average age at surgery was 2.5 years. Feet operated upon had lower results compared with the others. At last follow-up, among the operated feet, the results were excellent or good in 95% of the feet. The results were fair or bad in 4 cases; all 4 feet had been operated upon more than once. The results were not statistically dependent on age at the time of surgery, but feet operated upon before the age of 2 years had statistically more flattening of the talar dome and subtalar stiffness. The functional treatment of clubfoot leads to a very good result without the need for surgery in more than half of the patients. The initial severity of the feet is the main factor that influences the final result. The rate of feet not requiring surgery should be increased by recent modifications to the method, including percutaneous Achilles tenotomy. Level IV-retrospective series.

Total Ankle Arthroplasty With Combined Calcaneal and Metatarsal Osteotomies for Treatment of Ankle Osteoarthritis With Accompanying Cavovarus Deformities

Our study evaluated the short-term clinical and radiographic results of total ankle arthroplasty (TAA) with combined bony reconstructions for treatment of end-stage ankle osteoarthritis with accompanying cavovarus/hindfoot varus deformities. This study included 8 patients (10 ankles) with ankle osteoarthritis (OA) who were treated by TAA with combined calcaneal and metatarsal osteotomies between September 2004 and June 2010 and were followed an average of 17.9 months (12-43 months). Visual analogue scale (VAS) score, American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) score, radiographic measurements, and patient satisfaction were evaluated. The average patient age was 66.2 years (range, 55-76 years). Eighteen bony reconstruction procedures such as lateral sliding calcaneal osteotomy (n = 9) and first metatarsal dorsiflexion osteotomy (n = 4) were performed in addition to TAA. VAS pain score improved from an average of 8.8 (range, 6-10) preoperatively to an average of 2.4 (range, 0-7) (P < .05), and the AOFAS score improved from 36.9 (range, 14-71) preoperatively to 89.3 (range, 68-100) (P < .05). Ninety percent of the patients were satisfied with the results. Radiographically, the tibiocalcaneal angle (TCA) improved from a preoperative average of 19.0 degrees (range, 13-23 degrees) to 0.2 degrees (range, -5.4 to 2.8 degrees), the tibial axis-talar dome angle (TA-TDA) improved from a preoperative average of 15.6 degrees (range, 11.1-18.0 degrees) to 3.3 degrees (range, 1.7-5.6 degrees), and the talar dome-ground surface angle (TD-GSA) improved from a preoperative average of 21.2 degrees (range, 15.4-27.5 degrees) to 5.1 degrees (range, 1.8-10.2 degrees) (P < .05). We found that it was occasionally necessary to perform combined calcaneal and metatarsal osteotomies with TAA in order to successfully treat ankle OA with an accompanying cavovarus/varus deformity. The TD-GSA and TCA were also found to be important radiographic parameters in assessing varus ankles. IV, retrospective case series.

Hip Arthroscopy in Children under the Age of Ten

Arthroscopic hip surgery has become an established diagnostic and therapeutic method for addressing different hip pathologies. This paper focuses on hip arthroscopy for treating hip disorders in children under the age of 10. Arthroscopic hip surgery was performed 30 times on 24 children to address various hip pathologies. Indications were septic arthritis, benign soft tissue tumors, traumatic and congenital hip dislocation, juvenile idiopathic arthritis and osteochondroma of the acetabulum. Diagnostic arthroscopy was technically feasible in all cases. All cases of septic arthritis were successful treated using arthroscopic lavage and antibiotics. In the miscellaneous cases (benign fibrous tumor, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, osteochondroma congenital hip dislocations and traumatic hip dislocation) 4 hips had additional open surgery including surgical dislocation with synovectomy, open reduction and stabilization of the fractured posterior rim of the acetabulum, acetabulopasty and open resection of an osteochondroma with acetabuloplasty. In conclusion arthroscopic hip surgery is an additional diagnostic and therapeutic method that is suitable for treating different hip pathologies in children under the age of 10. Primary treatment of septic arthritis can be done easy by hip arthroscopy. Using cannulated mini arthroscopic hip instruments (2.7 mm), the range of application can be expanded to include treatment of very young infants. Hip arthroscopy can reduce the need of open surgery but cannot replace bony procedures in hip surgery.

A Comparison of Hip Dislocation Rates and Hip Containment Procedures After Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy Versus Intrathecal Baclofen Pump Insertion in Nonambulatory Cerebral Palsy Patients

Spasticity is the major etiology for hip dislocation in nonambulatory cerebral palsy patients. Selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) was used to control lower extremity spasticity, but is now done infrequently in nonambulatory cerebral palsy. Current surgical treatment is usually intrathecal baclofen pump (ITBP) placement. A major theoretical difference between SDR and ITBP is the effect on the iliopsoas through the L1 nerve root. This study compares the rate of hip dislocation and the need for further hip surgeries in SDR and ITBP patients. All nonambulatory cerebral palsy patients who had either an SDR or ITBP and had minimum follow-up of 2 years were retrospectively reviewed for demographic data and timing, total number, and type of hip procedures (soft tissue vs. bony), and occurrence of hip dislocation. χ (2)test was used to assess for statistical significance. Sixty-nine patients who underwent SDR (40 males) and 50 patients who underwent ITBP (27 males) were included in the study. Average age at spasticity intervention was 6 years 11 months for SDR and 9 years 8 months for ITBP. In the SDR group, 25% of hips underwent reconstruction versus 32% of hips in the ITBP group. There were a total of 19 hip procedures in the SDR group and 20 in the ITBP group (P = 0.15). Seventeen soft-tissue procedures were performed in both SDR and ITBP groups (P = 0.265). Six bony procedures (0 salvage) were performed in the SDR group and 10 in the ITBP group (4 salvage; P = 0.075). At final follow-up the hip dislocation rate was 10.6% in the SDR group and 7.4% in the ITBP group. There was no significant difference in the rate of secondary hip reconstructive surgery or dislocation between nonambulatory cerebral palsy patients who underwent SDR versus ITBP. Reconstruction was required for 25% to 32% of hips despite spasticity intervention with either procedure. This suggests that the L1 nerve root alone does not play a major role in the progression of hip dislocation. Level 3--therapeutic study.

Book Review

Shoulder instability is a common problem, often made more difficult to treat due to glenoid and humeral bone loss. This challenging problem confronts not only the shoulder specialist but also the sports medicine and general orthopaedic surgeon. When arthroscopic capsulolabral repair and advancement are inadequate to restore shoulder stability, open and bony procedures are indicated.

Traumatic problems of the patella

Abstract This article will outline the clinical presentation and management of patellar instability and fracture. Patellar instability is a generic term that describes anything from symptomatic apprehension to patellar subluxation and through to patellar dislocation. It can result from osseous abnormalities such as patella alta or patellofemoral dysplasia or it can arise secondary to soft tissue abnormalities such as a torn medial patellofemoral ligament. Failing conservative management, surgical treatment is directed to the underlying cause(s) of the instability, and can include medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction or a bony realignment procedure. Patellar fracture is a common injury caused by excessive tension through the extensor mechanism or a direct blow. Such injury can lead to stiffness, extension weakness and patellofemoral arthritis. Non-surgical management is indicated for non-displaced fractures with an intact extensor mechanism. Surgical fixation is recommended for fractures that either disrupt the extensor mechanism or that demonstrate over 2–3 mm of step-off and/or over 1–4 mm of displacement. Anatomic reduction and fixation with a tension-band technique is associated with the best outcomes; however, symptomatic hardware is a frequent complication.

Patella re-alignment in children with a modified Grammont technique

Background and purpose In skeletally immature patients, surgical options due to recurrent patella dislocation are limited, because bony procedures bear the risk of growth disturbances. In this retrospective study, we report the long-term functional and radiographic outcome in skeletally immature patients using the modified Grammont surgical technique.Patients Between 1999 and 2004, 65 skeletally immature knees (49 children) were treated with a modified Grammont procedure: an open lateral release and a shift of the patella tendon insertion below the growth plate on the tuberositas tibia, allowing the tendon to medialize. At mean 8 (5.6–11) years after surgery, 58 knees in 43 patients were evaluated by clinical examination, from functional scores (Lysholm, Tegner), and from radiographs of the knees.Results Mean Lysholm score was 82 postoperatively. Tegner score decreased from 6.2 to 5. Eight knees had a single dislocation within 3 months of surgery. 3 knees had repeated late dislocations, all with a high grade of trochlea dysplasia. 6 knees showed mild signs of osteoarthritis. No growth disturbances were observed.Interpretation The modified Grammont technique in skeletally immature patients allows restoration of the distal patella tendon alignment by dynamic positioning. Long-term results showed that there were no growth disturbances and that there was good functional outcome. However, patients with a high grade of trochlea dysplasia tended to re-dislocate.

Carpal Instability Nondissociative

Carpal instability nondissociative (CIND) represents a spectrum of conditions characterized by kinematic dysfunction of the proximal carpal row, often associated with a clinical "clunk." CIND is manifested at the midcarpal and/or radiocarpal joints, and it is distinguished from carpal instability dissociative (CID) by the lack of disruption between bones within the same carpal row. There are four major subcategories of CIND: palmar, dorsal, combined, and adaptive. In palmar CIND, instability occurs across the entire proximal carpal row. When nonsurgical management fails, surgical options include arthroscopic thermal capsulorrhaphy, soft-tissue reconstruction, or limited radiocarpal or intercarpal fusions. In dorsal CIND, the capitate subluxates dorsally from its reduced resting position. Dorsal CIND usually responds to nonsurgical management; refractory cases respond to palmar ligament reefing and/or dorsal intercarpal capsulodesis. Combined CIND demonstrates signs of both palmar and dorsal CIND and can be treated with soft-tissue or bony procedures. In adaptive CIND, the volar carpal ligaments are slackened and are less capable of inducing the physiologic shift of the proximal carpal row from flexion into extension as the wrist ulnarly deviates. Treatment of choice is a corrective osteotomy to restore the normal volar tilt of the distal radius.

Carpal Instability Nondissociative

Carpal instability nondissociative (CIND) represents a spectrum of conditions characterized by kinematic dysfunction of the proximal carpal row, often associated with a clinical “clunk.” CIND is manifested at the midcarpal and/or radiocarpal joints, and it is distinguished from carpal instability dissociative (CID) by the lack of disruption between bones within the same carpal row. There are four major subcategories of CIND: palmar, dorsal, combined, and adaptive. In palmar CIND, instability occurs across the entire proximal carpal row. When nonsurgical management fails, surgical options include arthroscopic thermal capsulorrhaphy, soft-tissue reconstruction, or limited radiocarpal or intercarpal fusions. In dorsal CIND, the capitate subluxates dorsally from its reduced resting position. Dorsal CIND usually responds to nonsurgical management; refractory cases respond to palmar ligament reefing and/or dorsal intercarpal capsulodesis. Combined CIND demonstrates signs of both palmar and dorsal CIND and can be treated with soft-tissue or bony procedures. In adaptive CIND, the volar carpal ligaments are slackened and are less capable of inducing the physiologic shift of the proximal carpal row from flexion into extension as the wrist ulnarly deviates. Treatment of choice is a corrective osteotomy to restore the normal volar tilt of the distal radius.

Galeazzi Semitendinosus Tenodesis for Patellofemoral Instability in Skeletally Immature Patients

Numerous surgical treatments have been described to address subluxation or dislocation of the patella, but many are not suitable for the skeletally immature patient, as they risk injury to the proximal tibial physis or tibial tubercle apophysis. The Galeazzi semitendinosus tenodesis is a soft-tissue reconstruction technique designed to stabilize the patella without altering the femoral or the bony structures about the knee. We sought to determine if this semitendinosus tenodesis is a safe and effective treatment for patellofemoral instability in skeletally immature patients. We retrospectively analyzed the records of a population of skeletally immature patients who underwent semitendinosus tenodesis for patellofemoral instability at our institution from 1990 to 2006. Condition-specific outcome and function were prospectively collected, including the International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) score, Kujala Score, and Marx Activity Scale. Recurrent instability was defined as patient-reported postoperative subluxation, dislocation, or both. Twenty-eight patients (34 total knees) were included in the study. Average follow-up was 70 months (range, 27 to 217 mo). Patients reported recurrent instability in 28 of the 34 knees (82%). Overall, 41% of patients had IKDC scores <70. Twelve knees (35%) were symptomatic enough to undergo subsequent surgery, but had similar mean IKDC (63), Kujala (81), and Marx Activity Scores (7.5) at long-term follow-up to those (IKDC 64, Kujala 79, Marx 8.2) who did not undergo additional surgeries (P=0.73, 0.88, 0.76, respectively). Complications included 1 superficial wound infection and 1 mild wound dehiscence. Patellofemoral instability remains a challenging clinical problem, particularly in patients with open physes. The Galeazzi semitendinosus tenodesis is a safe procedure for patellofemoral instability in skeletally immature patients, but our long-term data suggest it may not be as successful as previously reported. Approximately 82% of patients experienced recurrent subluxation or dislocation despite surgical intervention, which may be due in large part to various predisposing factors, and there was a 35% rate of second surgeries. However, given the variability in techniques and reported results of patellofemoral stabilizing procedures in skeletally immature patients, the Galeazzi procedure may still be a reasonable way to temporize the difficult problem of patellar instability until patients reach skeletal maturity, when bony realignment procedures can be more safely used. Level IV, case series.

Arthroscopic Capsulotomy, Capsular Repair, and Capsular Plication of the Hip: Relation to Atraumatic Instability

The purpose of this systematic review was to critically evaluate the available literature exploring the role of the hip joint capsule in the normal state (stable) and pathologic states (instability or stiffness). Furthermore, we examined the various ways that arthroscopic hip surgeons address the capsule intraoperatively: (1) capsulotomy or capsulectomy without closure, (2) capsulotomy with closure, and (3) capsular plication. Two independent reviewers (B.D.G. and B.G.D.) performed a systematic review of the literature using PubMed and the reference lists of related articles by means of defined search terms. Relevant studies were included if these criteria were met: (1) written in English, (2) Levels of Evidence I to V, (3) focus on capsule and its role in hip stability, and (4) human studies and reviews. Articles were excluded if they evaluated (1) total hip arthroplasty constructs using bony procedures or prosthetic revision, (2) developmental dysplasia of the hip where reorientation osteotomies were used, (3) syndromic instability, and (4) traumatic instability with associated bony injury. By use of the search method described, 5,085 publications were reviewed, of which 47 met appropriate criteria for inclusion in this review. Within this selection group, there were multiple publications that specifically addressed more than 1 of the inclusion criteria. Relevant literature was organized into the following areas: (1) capsular anatomy, biomechanics, and physiology; (2) the role of the capsule in total hip arthroplasty stability; (3) the role of the capsule in native hip stability; and (4) atraumatic instability and capsulorrhaphy. As the capsuloligamentous stabilizers of the hip continue to be studied, and their role defined, arthroscopic hip surgeons should become facile with arthroscopic repair or plication techniques to restore proper capsular integrity and tension when indicated. Level IV, systematic review.

Arthroscopic Bristow-Latarjet Procedure (SS-05)

Anterior shoulder instability is well known as a common pathology and many surgeons have chosen the arthroscopic Bankart procedure or other soft tissue procedures for its treatment. However using these techniques may result in unsatisfactory outcomes when an anterior glenoid fracture or bone loss is associated. These patients may achieve better and safer results by using a bony block procedures as the Bristow-Latarjet procedure. The intention of the study is to present the full arthroscopic Bristow-Latarjet procedure of the author and its implications in 21 patients. We performed 21 arthroscopic bristow-latarjet procedures in patients presenting HAGL, soft tissue procedures failures, gross shoulder instability and anterior glenoid bone loss following the senior author's technique. Patients were evaluated by UCLA score and comparative difference of external rotation, before and 6-month after surgeries. Twenty one arthroscopic Bristow-Latarjet procedures have been performed, one lost the surgery because the breakage of the graft, 4 have less than 6 months post surgery. The remaining 16 were evaluated. In the 6-month postoperative evaluation, the UCLA score changed from 24,37 (before surgery) to 33,1. The average loss of external rotation was 12,5 degrees, compared with the normal shoulder. The only real failure was the breaking of the coracoid in 1 patient. In this case the author used successfully the arthroscopic conjoined tendon tenodesis (using anchors) in the anterior glenoid rim. The coracoid and conjoined tendon transfer procedure is one of the most useful treatments for shoulder instability. Using this procedure many other shoulder surgeons have derived good and safe results. This procedure is strongly recommended for anterior glenoid bony loss, in contact athletes, gross anterior shoulder instability and failure of previous soft tissue procedures; however special attention is necessary to avoid limitation in external rotation. To improve surgical access and to make it easier to scope, the surgeon may use different portals to have a wide view and be able to work better. Compared with the open procedure, it is shown to be superior because of limited exposure, especially in young athletes with significant musculature. The arthroscopic technique is also advantageous in those cases in which the preoperative assessment fails to reveal a Humeral Avulsion of the Glenohumeral Ligament lesion or a large bony avulsion from the anterior glenoid rim. It also allows the surgeon to modify his plan intraoperatively. As to the graft placement and fixation, the arthroscopic technique provides better visualization for positioning the coracoid. This should minimize the risk of anterior overhang of the bone block and then, reduce the risk of osteoarthritis of the humeral head, a well-recognized complication of open procedures. There is also the advantage of the graft-shaving possibility. The absence of special devices was our challenge in creating this technique. The coracoid is horizontally positioned exposing the bone marrow and leading to a biological healing. Even with the advantages mentioned in the above, at this time, it does not seem evident that in long term the arthroscopic technique produces better results than the open surgery.

Instability of the shoulder following seizures

Dislocation of the shoulder may occur during seizures in epileptics and other patients who have convulsions. Following the initial injury, recurrent instability is common owing to a tendency to develop large bony abnormalities of the humeral head and glenoid and a susceptibility to further seizures. Assessment is difficult and diagnosis may be missed, resulting in chronic locked dislocations with protracted morbidity. Many patients have medical comorbidities, and successful treatment requires a multidisciplinary approach addressing the underlying seizure disorder in addition to the shoulder pathology. The use of bony augmentation procedures may have improved the outcomes after surgical intervention, but currently there is no evidence-based consensus to guide treatment. This review outlines the epidemiology and pathoanatomy of seizure-related instability, summarising the currently-favoured options for treatment, and their results.

Management strategies for shoulder reconstruction in obstetric brachial plexus injury with special reference to loss of internal rotation after surgery

We assessed the outcomes in 24 of 25 children (mean age 3 years) who had soft-tissue shoulder reconstruction procedures for obstetric brachial plexus injuries. All had latissimus dorsi and teres major transfers to strengthen external rotation combined with subscapularis lengthening, reduction of posterior dislocation or subluxation, and humeral osteotomy, if necessary. At a mean follow-up of 3.8 years, the mean Mallet score improved from 12.3 preoperatively to 17.4 postoperatively, active external rotation improved from 21° to 32°, and passive external rotation improved from 26° to 67°. The shoulder remained in joint in all patients. Active internal rotation deteriorated in nine shoulders, two requiring secondary internal rotation osteotomy. Combined soft tissue rebalancing and bony procedures gives reliable shoulder function improvement. Care is required regarding the effect on internal rotation.

Dual-window Subscapularis-sparing Approach

Combined bankart lesion and humeral avulsion of glenohumeral ligament lesion (HAGL) is a well-described pathologic complex in anterior shoulder instability; open surgical approaches with and without arthroscopic assistance have been suggested for simultaneous 1-stage repair of these lesions. Presence of a significant glenoid bone defect (inverted-pear glenoid) adds to the complexity of the problem and necessitates a bony reconstruction procedure. Open surgical approaches described for management of this combined lesion complex in anterior shoulder instability necessitate a subscapularis-cutting approach; suboptimal healing of the tenotomized subscapularis and subsequent delayed rehabilitation predisposes to late subscapularis dysfunction, and this compromises clinical outcomes. This study describes a new surgical technique that utilizes a dual-window approach through the subscapularis muscle; the dual window enables access to the glenoid and humeral lesions without the need for a subscapularis tenotomy. The approach can be used to perform a congruent-arc Latarjet procedure (for glenoid bone defects) or a Bankart repair (for capsulolabral lesions), in combination with a HAGL repair. Preliminary arthroscopy is essential to identify significant bone defects and HAGL lesions. The dual-window approach for reconstruction of the lesions involves (1) a lateral "subscapularis-sparing" window to identify and repair the HAGL lesion; (2) a medial "subscapularis muscle-splitting" window to perform either a glenoid capsulolabral reconstruction or a congruent-arc Latarjet procedure; and (3) a balanced inferior capsular shift and lateralization procedure of the glenohumeral capsule. Technical tips and guidelines to avoid complications are discussed, and a rehabilitation protocol is presented.

Functional and Aesthetic Approach to Adult Unoperated Möbius Syndrome

Sir:FigureWe read with great interest the article recently published in your Journal by Chou et al., who reported their experience in the treatment of an adult patient with Möbius syndrome.1 This was the first report in the literature of orthognathic surgery in those types of patients, and only one other article has been published.2 Despite the great results obtained by the authors and the innovative approach in Möbius syndrome treatment, we found some points that should be clarified. The authors recommend at the end of the article that the bony procedure be performed before soft-tissue adjustment: although this timing is certainly easier for the surgeon who can perform orthognathic surgery without intraoperative difficulties related to previous muscle transplantation, it could be detrimental to the patient in different ways. Orthognathic surgery should be performed, in Möbius patients and in normal patients, at the end of bony growth, to allow for optimal and stable results, avoiding recurrences and interferences with bony growth, whereas facial animation should be performed as soon as possible (we usually perform it starting from the age of 5 years) to allow for optimal social interactions and psychological development.3 Furthermore, if orthognathic surgery and, in particular, mandibular advancement, is performed before muscle transplantation, the lack of muscular activity in the lower third of the face could lead to a stretching of facial soft tissues and in particular of the inferior lip and pericommissural area that could result in worsening of inferior lip eversion and oral competence. These iatrogenic deformations are very difficult to correct also with muscle transplantation and require special techniques, including lip suspensions with fascia lata strips or commissuroplasty, that complicate soft-tissue rehabilitation and worsen final aesthetic and functional results. It is also important to point out that when gracilis muscle transplanted for facial animation is reinnervated with the motor nerve to the masseter muscle, reinnervation is stronger, safer, and faster than with other donor nerves,4 and there is no interference with the orthognathic procedure that can be safely performed at the end of growth. In conclusion, we commend the authors for their nice job, but we would also like to emphasize that the approach they recommend should be used only for patients in whom Möbius syndrome is diagnosed at the end of growth (such as the one they reported) and not in younger patients, who represent the majority of Möbius cases. In these patients, facial animation should be performed as soon as possible and orthognathic surgery should be delayed until after patient growth. Bernardo Bianchi, M.D. Andrea Ferri, M.D. Silvano Ferrari, M.D. Chiara Copelli, M.D. Maxillo-Facial Surgery Division Teore Ferri, M.D. Otolaryngology Head Neck Surgery Division Enrico Sesenna, M.D. Maxillo-Facial Surgery Division, Head and Neck Department, University Hospital of Parma, Parma, Italy