Bonny Island Research Articles

Isolation of antibiotics producing bacteria from marine soil and comparative analysis of same with commercially available drugs

The isolation of antibiotic producing bacteria from marine soil and comparative analysis of same with ciprofloxacin and amoxicillin against staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was carried out in a Microbiology Laboratory of Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli. This was done to isolate antibiotic producing bacteria and compare same with existing commercially available antibiotics with a view to using marine soil in the treatment of common bacterial infections. Soil samples were collected from Bonny Island Sea, Port Harcourt. One gram of mixed soil sample was serially diluted and spread-plated on nutrient agar plates. The representative isolates obtained were sub-cultured to get a pure culture. Morphological, biochemical, physiological characteristics of the bacteria were analyzed. Agar well diffusion was carried out. One isolate had a substantial antibacterial activity with 3.5mm zone of inhibition against two test bacteria used in the preliminary screening. The isolate was marked as Streptomyces (STR I) and was identified as Streptomyces griseus while other isolates did not show any antibacterial activity. Ciprofloxacin showed the highest antibacterial activity to both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli of 3.7mm and 4.0mm respectively while Amoxicillin showed antibacterial activity of 3.5mm and 2.7mm respectively. This reveals that antibiotic producing bacteria from marine soil are also effective in antimicrobial activity and could be used for antimicrobial chemotherapy.

Sexual Behaviours among Oil and Gas Workers in the Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria: Assessing the Impact of Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Prevention Programs

Introduction: The major means of transmitting sexual-related diseases including HIV is through unprotected sexual activities. This study aimed to assess the impact of comprehensive HIV prevention interventions on the sexual behavior of oil and gas workers in Bonny Island, a rural community of Rivers State, Nigeria. Methods: This is a cross-sectional-quantitative study that employed a structured questionnaire among oil and gas workers aged 15 – 49 years in Bonny Island. The information collected from February to April 2012 (after a three year HIV prevention and control intervention programs) includes the socio-demographics; age, gender, education, occupation, marital status and data related to sexual behaviors. Data were analyzed using IBM-SPSS version 25.0. Results: There were 419 respondents each in baseline and post-intervention surveys. The rate of unprotected sex among respondents at baseline was 82.1% as compared to 20.3% after the intervention, odds ratio-18.02 (95% CI-12.76-25.45; P<0.0001). Sixty-one (14.6%) exchanged sex for gifts in the baseline and 12.4% in the post-intervention. At the baseline, 5.0% used condoms in the last sexual intercourse as compared to 26.0% in the post-intervention; odds ratio - 6.66 (95% CI-4.08-10.88; P<0.0001). Factors associated with condoms use include sex, age, education, duration in the community, marital status, and living with spouses (p<0.01). Conclusion: There was a significant positive impact of a comprehensive intervention programme on the sexual behavior of the workers in the rural community of Rivers State, Nigeria. However, regular interventions in rural communities towards the prevention of spread of STIs and HIV are needed in Nigeria.

Assessment of Economic Viability of Wind Power Plant in Bonny Island of Rivers State of Southern Nigeria for Cleaner Electricity Generation

This paper presents the economic viability of a 30 MW wind power plant in Bonny Island, Rivers State, Nigeria, as a mandate to define the suitability of siting wind farms for the purpose of electricity generation. Bonny Island is presently not connected to Nigeria utility grid, as such sustainable and reliable electricity generation is desirable. In this work, wind electricity generation and economic assessment of Enercon E-82 (2 MW) wind turbines operating at 78 m hub height was investigated. The result showed the chosen turbine model can generate total annual electricity of 89,684 MWh at an energy cost of $0.1/ kWh and 38,796 tons of CO2 on greenhouse gas saving. The result also showed that the wind power generation is economically viable in Bonny Island. Keywords: Renewable energy, wind power, RETScreen, Economic Assessment, Bonny Island.

Impact of Health Interventions on the Knowledge, Perception, Attitude, and Misconception of HIV Infection in an African Rural Community

ABSTRACT Background: Adequate knowledge of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), its modes of transmission, and methods of prevention can facilitate its prevention and control among any people. This study evaluates the impact of health interventions on the knowledge, perception, attitude, and misconception of HIV infection in Bonny Kingdom of Rivers State, Nigeria. Materials and Methods: This is a quantitative survey that used a structured questionnaire to determine the impact of community-based interventions (awareness education, free counseling and testing, etc.) on the prevention of HIV/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDs) among a representative sample of the general population aged 15 to 49 years in Bonny Island, Nigeria. The data obtained include the demographics; age, sex, education, occupation, marital status, and sexual-related information. Data were analyzed by using SPSS, version 25.0. Result: The study comprised 1215 participants in each of the pre- and postintervention surveys. Before intervention, only 47.2% could correctly identify three transmission routes of HIV, as compared with 82.8% after the interventions (P < 0.0001). The intervention participants were 5.37 (95% CI. 4.46–6.48) more likely to have good knowledge of HIV transmission routes than respondents without interventions. The odds of misconception about HIV transmission routes before intervention were 3.52 (95% CI 2.48–5.01; P < 0.0001). About 80.7% and 45.9% believed that they were not at risk of contracting HIV at the baseline and postinterventions, respectively. Postintervention respondents were 4.04 (95% CI 3.41–4.79; P < 0.0001) willing to share meals, 4.84 (95% CI 3.94–5.94) willing to care for, 3.73 (95% CI 3.14–4.44) willing to allow teachers infected with HIV in school, and 3.14 (95% CI 2.60–7.80) willing to buy food from an infected person as compared with the preinterventions survey (P < 0.0001). Conclusion: This study has demonstrated the positive impacts of community-based intervention programs on the knowledge, prevention methods, and levels of misconception of HIV in Bonny Kingdom. Similar interventions are needed in other rural communities to promote the quest to end HIV/ AIDS by the year 2030.

Brief Review of Causes and Effects of Substance Abuse on Young Adults: Focus on Bonny Island Residents

Substance abuse is fast becoming a global social concern especially among young adults. Young people often experiment with a variety of activities and substances. Unfortunately, this experimentation can lead to substance abuse and addiction. Statistics show that drug abuse is a growing problem among young adults. This review highlights the causes of substance abuse among young adults in the society, the effects of this harmful substances and possible preventions of this social menace on young people. In Bonny Island, it has become most worrisome the rate at which young people are embracing drugs freely and unchecked. Worst still, young people are generating their mixtures using modern substances with unusual elements to create their own formula for severe drug intake. This means that drug intake has graduated from the use of sedatives like cocaine, heroin and cannabis that we used to know to potent mixture of several drugs to attain fatal overdose. For example, a cocktail of drugs like codeine, tramadol, cannabis with juice or soft drink is called “gutter water”. More crude is the smoking of lizard dung, sniffing of petrol, glue, urine and sewage as inhalant. This is gradually eating deep into our society like cancer. Actually, substance abuse is now part of a modern society but very worrisome is the alarming rate at which young adults are embracing hard substances.

Determination of Magnetic susceptibility of hydrocarbon contaminated soils in Port Harcourt and Bonny Island, Rivers State, Nigeria

In this study, determination of magnetic susceptibility were carried out on 366 soil samples using MS2B magnetic susceptibility meter connected to a computer system using MULTISUS2 software. The soil samples were selected from six sites namely: Shell environment, Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas environment, Port Harcourt Refining Company James Hart, New Jerusalem and Port Harcourt respectively. Three of the six sites; Shell, NLNG and Port-Harcourt Refining Company environments have their soils contaminated with hydrocarbon. One hundred and ninety two (192) soil samples were collected from these hydrocarbon contaminated sites and 174 from non-hydrocarbon contaminated soil (control samples). The magnetic susceptibility values obtained from Shell environment and for hydrocarbon samples showed higher (enhanced) magnetic susceptibility with average values of 117.54x10-8 m3kg-1 and 2016.39x10-8 m3kg-1 and a moderate magnetic susceptibility for with an average value of 20.83x10-8 m3kg-1 in comparison to magnetic susceptibility values obtained from the control samples whose average values were 2.39x10-8 m3kg-1, 12.42x10-8 m3kg-1 and 3.31x10-8 m3kg-1 for James Hart, New Jerusalem and Port Harcourt respectively. This means that the hydrocarbon sites are highly magnetic which could be indication of pollution. The results of the percentage frequency dependent susceptibility (χFD%) obtained in the hydrocarbon samples showed about 16% of the samples had percentage frequency dependent susceptibility (χFD%) values between 0-2%, 53% had values of χFD% between 2-10% and 31% had χFD% between 10-12% and above while about 21% of the control samples had χFD% values between 0-2%, 58% between 2-10% and 21% between 10-12% and above. The high magnetic susceptibility value in the hydrocarbon soil samples is an indication of pollution due to hydrocarbon deposit. The Government is therefore advised to monitor the location and activities of the oil companies and initiate quick mop up strategies should be put in place in the eventuality of oil spillage.

Risk evaluation and modeling of soils contaminated with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in parts of Bonny Island, Niger Delta, Nigeria

Risk evaluation and modeling of soils contaminated with Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in parts of Bonny Island, Niger Delta, Nigeria

Effect of Heavy Metals on β-galactosidase Activity in Marine Bacteria

Background: Due to metal pollution and its toxicity in the coastal areas, the enzymatic activities of bacteria involved in the breakdown of organic compounds are repressed leading to decline in biodegradation rate.
 Aim: The influence of heavy metals (copper, lead, zinc, manganese and iron) on β-galactosidase activity in three bacterial strains (Providencia stuartii, Pantoea dispersa and Aeromonas dhakensis) isolated from coastal marine sediment collected from coastal zone in Bonny Island, Nigeria was investigated.
 Methodology: The strains were cultivated in Z- buffered medium having lactose as enzyme inducer. Beta galactosidase assay was done via 2-nitrophenol β-D-galactopyranoside as the substrate. The absorbances of p-nitrophenol solution formed were measured at 420 nm in a spectrophotometer. The β-galactosidase activities were calculated comparative to controls.
 Results: Presence of the metals significantly affected β-galactosidase activities. Metal concentration of 0.001 mg/L triggered a decrease in enzyme activity. The sensitivity patterns of Pantoea dispersa and Aeromonas dhakensis were Cu>Pb>Zn>Mn>Fe while that of Providencia stuartii was Pb>Cu>Zn>Mn>Fe. The effect of metal stress to enzyme synthesis is reliant on the organism and the metal. This might be described with logistic dose-response model using elevated coefficient of inhibition (R > 0.81).
 Conclusion: The results revealed that concentration of metal as low as 0.001 mg/L when deposited in the environment has detrimental effect on microbial activities and consequently on biogeochemical cycles. The isolated bacterial strains could serve as ideal organisms for heavy metal toxicity evaluation.

Baseline and postintervention assessment of sexual violence and condom use among female sex workers in a semiurban African community

Introduction: Sexual violence, which usually involves forced unprotected sex, is very common among sex workers in West Africa. The incidence of HIV in the rural towns and villages is being propelled by risky behaviors such as unprotected sex more prevalent among key population groups including sex workers. The present study aims at comparing sexual violence and condom use among women in Brothel in Bonny Island to assess the impact of a 3 years community-based intervention. Methods: The present study is a quantitative study involving female sex workers in Bonny Island in two surveys; baseline and postintervention. A structured questionnaire was used to obtain the information such as the demographics, sexual violence, and condom use. The data obtained were analyzed using the IBM-SPSS version 25.0. Results: There were 261 and 186 participants in baseline and the postintervention surveys, respectively. The majority 127 (48.7%) and 55 (29.6%) of the participants in both surveys were adolescents aged 14–24 years. Overall, 140/261 (53.6%) have ever been forced to have sex in the baseline study and 24/261 (12.9%) in postintervention. Those that have ever been forced to have sex without a condom were 68 (26.1%) baseline and 20 (10.8%) postintervention. Overall, 59.9% of baseline participants used condom in the last sexual act as compared to 89.6% in postintervention. Furthermore, 42.4% of baseline participants used condom in all the last 5 sexual acts as compared to 85.2% in the postintervention. In the baseline, 40.2% had problems using a condom in the past 2 months as compared to 3.1% after the intervention. Conclusion: This study found a drastic reduction in sexual violence against sex workers due to the community-based intervention. Furthermore, there was an increase in the use of condom among the study participants. It is advocated that community-based intervention should be encouraged and consistent in the HIV prevention and control programs, especially in the grassroots.

Baseline and post-intervention surveys of the prevalence of HIV in an African Rural population and women in the brothel

Backgrounds: HIV remains a major global public health challenge despite all efforts to end the endemic since the 1980s. This study is aimed to determine the baseline and postintervention HIV prevalence among female sex workers (FSW) and in the population of Bonny Island. Materials and Methods: The study is a quantitative study involving the general population of the Bonny Kingdom and the FSW in baseline and postintervention surveys. Blood samples were collected and tested for HIV. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 25. Results: A total of 1104 blood samples were tested for HIV in both surveys. The baseline HIV prevalence was 4.5% and 1.8% in the postintervention. The prevalence ratio of baseline/postintervention was 2.5 (confidence interval [CI] 1.2–5.8; P = 0.011). HIV prevalence was 4.5% in both males and females in the baseline survey as compared to 1.9% and 3.8% in postintervention. The HIV prevalence ratio in females was 3.8 (CI: 1.0–21.1, P = 0.025), but no significant difference was observed among males. Baseline HIV prevalence was 7.0 among age 25–34 years and 0.5% in postintervention with a prevalence ratio of 12.9 (CI: 2.0–54.9; P

Isolation, Screening and Characterization of Exopolysaccharide Producing Bacteria

Exopolysaccharides(EPSs) are essential metabolites synthesized and excreted by certain microorganisms in response to extreme condition of pH, temperature, salinity, osmotic stress and other contaminants for survival in such adverse environment. The present study focuses on isolation of exopolysaccharide producing bacteria from extreme environment of oil polluted soil of Ogoni land and marine water of Bonny Island. Screening of EPS producing abilities of the selected isolates were estimated using two approaches viz gravimetric analysis of EPS dry weight and quantification assay for total carbohydrate content by phenol sulphuric acid method. Result revealed that a total of forty (40) different colonies were suspected to produce exopolysaccharide after preliminary screening by selecting thick ropy-like colony formers on agar medium. Secondary screening indicated that twelve (12) isolates produced precipitates above 1000mg/l of total dry weight and eight (8) isolates produced highest EPS yield above 1000mg/l of culture media with carbohydrate content determination. Five isolates with the code WAS1, WAS11, SC6, SOS7 and SOS10 produced significantly higher EPS compared to other bacterial colonies isolated and were termed as most potent EPS producers. These isolates were identified based on 16S rDNA sequence as Providencia stuarti, Escherichia coli, Shewanella chilikensis and Bacillus nealsonii. The result of the present study indicated that these strains have the potentials of producing high exopolysaccharides and can be explored in biotechnological industries.

Drainage Network Analysis and Incidence of Flooding In Bonny Island, Nigeria

Drainage Network Analysis and Incidence of Flooding In Bonny Island, Nigeria

Human Resource Development and Organizational Performance in the Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas Company Limited, Bonny

The paper discussed human resource development (HRD) and organizational performance in the Nigeria liquefied natural gas company limited, Bonny. It views HRD as the integrated use of training and development, organizational development and career development to improve individual, group and organizational effectiveness. It assumes that HRD practices directly/indirectly enhance business performance through improvement in employees’ skills, attitudes and behavior. The research question addressed the extent of the relationship between HRD practices (training and development) and increased employees motivation/commitment and organizational productivity in the Nigeria liquefied natural gas company limited, Bonny. The place of study is the bonny industrial area of the Nigeria liquefied natural gas company while the duration of study is between May 2013 and April 2014. A descriptive research design was used in executing the study, using 370 randomly selected NLNG employees from its industrial area in bonny island, for questionnaire administration. The sample size of 370 was determined from a population of 4,895 employees using Yamane 1964 sample size determination formula at 5% level of significance for sampling error. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results from the data analysis indicated that significant relationship exists between HRD practices (training and development) and increased employees motivation/commitment and organizational productivity in the Nigeria liquefied natural gas company limited, bonny and recommends among others: review of current training/development procedure, regular appraisal of employees job skill requirements, regular staff training/development, regular improvement of employees’ condition of service and sustenance of current team building efforts/ incentive scheme.

Good Housekeeping - A Panacea for Slips, Trips & Falls Accident in the NLNG Project, Bonny

The paper discussed good housekeeping- a panacea for slips, trips &falls (STF) accident in the NLNG project Bonny. Good housekeeping entails cleaning and orderly arrangement of materials in the workplace. The study assumes that good housekeeping practices will eliminate workplace clutter (unsafe condition) which is the common cause of STF accident and make the workplace neat, comfortable and pleasant. The research question ascertained the extent at which elimination of workplace clutter (unsafe condition) and reduction of STF accident rate is influenced by the implementation of good housekeeping programme in the NLNG project Bonny. A descriptive research design was used in conducting the study; using questionnaire administered on 384 randomly selected employees of the ten NLNG construction companies in Bonny Island. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that implementation of good housekeeping programme to a large extent eliminated workplace clutter and reduced STF accident rate in the NLNG project Bonny. The study therefore recommends among others: management leadership and commitment on good housekeeping, regular housekeeping audits, regular training of employees on good housekeeping techniques, introduction of good housekeeping incentives and encouragement of good housekeeping culture among the workforce.

Perception Survey of Employees Participation in Decision Making and Organizational Productivity in Julius Berger Nigeria PLC Bonny Island

The paper is a perception survey of employees’ participation in decision making and organizational productivity in Julius Berger Nigeria Plc. Bonny Island. It defines employees’ participation in decision making as a process of sharing influence in decision making among individuals who are otherwise hierarchically unequal. It assumes that involvement of employees in decision making increases their commitment and organizational productivity. The research question addressed the extent of the relationship between employees’ participation in decision making and increased employees commitment and organizational productivity in Julius Berger Nigeria Plc. Bonny Island. The place of study is Julius Berger Nigeria Plc. Bonny Island while the duration of study is between May 2012 and June 2013. A descriptive research design was used in executing the study using 200 randomly selected respondents from a population of 2000 employees for questionnaire administration. The sample size of 200 was judgmentally determined from 10% of the population size. The core aspect of the study is the use of cross-sectional Original Research Article British Journal of Economics, Management & Trade, 4(4): 620-637, 2014 621 survey research design in generating the required primary data. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results from the data analysis indicated that significant relationship exists between employees’ participation in decision making and increased employees commitment and organizational productivity. The research therefore concludes that significant relationship exists between employees’ participation in decision making and organizational productivity in Julius Berger Nigeria Plc. Bonny Island and recommends among others: encouragement of work teams, training and re-training of employees, improvement of reward system and improvement of internal communication channels.

Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Shoreline Changes in Bonny Island, Nigeria

The study examined the shoreline changes over time in Bonny Island of Rivers State, Nigeria. Satellite images comprising of Landsat TM of 30m by 30m of 1986, 2001, 2003 and 2006; and Nigersat image of 30m by 30m of 2004 were used as the sources of data. The satellite images underwent series of geo-processing. The bands (red, blue and green) of each image were combined using Erdas Imagine 9.0. The images were imported to ArcGIS 9.2 whereby the shoreline from each image was digitized as polylines. The shoreline of 1986 was overlaid on that of 2001, shoreline of 2001 was overlaid on 2003, 2003 on 2004 and that of 2004 on 2006. Thereafter, overlaid maps were converted to polygons using Features to Polygon module of ArcGIS 9.2. The polygons were grouped to advanced (land gained) or retreat (land lost) with which spatial query was done. The result revealed that Bonny Island lost about 1793.24 km 2 of land while 419.31 km 2 was gained between 1986 and 2001 whereas between 2001 and 2003; 1246.46 km 2 was lost while 1200.43 km 2 of land was gained. During the period between 2003 and 2004, the analysis showed that 858.47 km 2 was gained while 3408.68 km2 was lost whereas between 2004 and 2006, the 2460.30 km 2 of land advanced seaward while 2450.03 km2 of land was lost. The percentage change was highest between 1986 and 2001 with 76.62% of land loss. The study recommended periodic monitoring of the coastal area on monthly and yearly bases. Keywords: Shoreline, GIS, Remote sensing, Bonny Island, Water transport, ArcGIS 9.2, Erdas Imagine

Aspects of Air Quality Status of Bonny Island, Nigeria Attributed to an Lng Plant

The Bonny Island axis of the Niger Delta, Nigeria, is one of the most industrialized belts of Nigeria. Among the significant industries in the locality is the Nigerian natural gas liquefying plants. The plant complex generates emissions which are propagated by meteorological agents. An atmospheric dispersion model was used to model the emissions using a computer programme. A statistical analysis of meteorological parameters was also carried out to determine the pollutants dispersion in the atmosphere. The analysis shows that wind speed is moderate and the predominance of southerly winds will move plumes toward human settlements in the north and north-eastern directions from the plant. From the diffusion model, the compounds likely to be emitted in the largest quantity from the plant in the order of magnitude were CO2, NOx, CO, PM10 and SOx. There is evidence that pollutants concentration would be highest for receptors at about 10 km from the emission sources even under unstable atmospheric conditions. The concentration of all the pollutants were well within the set ambient limits for the averaging period considered (i.e., 1 hour). It is recommended that the LNG plants continue to use natural gas as their major fuel as it will help in reducing pollutants like CO, PM10 and SOx. Also, due to the large CO2 gas emitted, afforestation and conservation projects should be initiated in Bonny Island so as to earn carbon credit.

Enhanced remediation of an oily sludge with saline water

This study investigates the potentials of saline (that is, brackish) water to enhance the remediation of an oily sludge, which was part of the waste stream from the improvement project of the Tank Farm at the Bonny Island in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Twice weekly, five separate laboratory-scale reactors (labeled A, B, C, D and O), each containing 2.0 × 10-2 m3 of the diluted sludge samples, received 170 g of liquid 20:10:10-NPK-fertilizer (corresponding to an application rate of approximately 4.3 kg-N-m-3, 2.1 kg-P-m-3 and 2.1 kg-K-m-3 of diluted sludge). On a weekly basis, control reactors A and B received 5.0 × 10-4 and 1.5 × 10-3 m3 of fresh water respectively while ‘treatment’ reactors C and D received 5.0 × 10-4 and 1.5 × 10-3 m3 of saline water (containing 4.54 g/L of NaCl) respectively. Reactor O, which served as a counterfactual, was only rain-fed. Equal oxygen exposure levels, through regularly scheduled tilling, was maintained in all five reactors. After 12 weeks of treatment (that is, from May to August, 2007), sludge physicochemical characteristics showed distinct variations. The saline water treated-reactor D, had a 7-fold increment in bacterial population while the fresh water treated-reactor B, had an approximately 3-fold increment in bacterial population. The drop in the hydrocarbon content of the saline water-treated reactors ranged from 41.7 to 55.9% whereas in the fresh water-treated reactors, the hydrocarbon losses ranged from 17.3 to 25.0%. These results showed the possibility of enhanced biodegradation of oily sludge by hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria (Bacillus subtilis) at salinity (NaCl concentration) of 4.54 g/L. Key words: Bioremediation, biostimulation, oily sludge, saline water, Bacillus subtilis.

Aspects of community ecology of amphibians and reptiles at Bonny Island (Nigeria), an area of priority relevance for petrochemical industry

AbstractFinima Nature Park, situated in Bonny Island (Niger Delta, Nigeria), is a protected forested area placed within one of the most industrially developed (and environmentally polluted) regions of the whole African continent. Amphibian and reptile community composition in relation to season and microhabitat characteristics was studied, by a combination of field techniques, during the wet and dry seasons of 2007 and 2008. Overall, a total of 21 species of reptiles from nine families (with 668 individuals caught) and eight amphibian species from five families (492 individuals caught) were recorded. Nearly 94% of the amphibian individuals and most of the species were recorded, especially during the wet season, whereas most of the reptiles were found with no inter‐seasonal differences. However, Agama agama and Mabuya affinis were found especially during the dry season. As for microhabitat use, the reptile species showed a clear, aggregated preference for two microhabitat types (dry leaves and under logs), which are probably crucial when these animals need to lose body temperature to avoid overheating. Concerning amphibians, the various species used the available microhabitats in a way expectable from their main ecological traits, with toads differing from aquatic frogs, and these differing from arboreal frogs.

Modular Syncrude Conversion Drives Oilfield GTL Solution for Associated Gas

Technology Update The associated gas that accompanies oil to the surface in a producing well can be a great advantage and valuable revenue stream, if your oil field is near a pipeline that feeds into a gas market. However, as oil fields move into deeper and more remote areas, away from population centers and gas infrastructure, the options for handling associated gas have become restricted and the question of what to do with it often difficult. The industry is crying out for a solution. Historically, where there was no local market or available pipeline, associated gas was flared. However, this is now both environmentally and politically unacceptable, and in many countries banned. The alternative of gas reinjection is expensive and can cause reservoir damage, which adversely affects production and reserves. Seeking a solution that avoids either of these alternatives, the industry for years has experimented with a variety of technologies. For example, in areas with large associated gas volumes, the gas can be commingled into gathering systems and supply nearby specially constructed liquefied natural gas (LNG), methanol, or ammonia plants. However, this solution comes with a couple of major requirements.High gas volumes must be com-mitted in advance to justify the substantial plant-building cost.Commonly, supplementary nonassociated gas also must be available to offset supply fluctuations, including the eventual decline of field production. One example of how this supply-balancing requirement can work is the Bonny Island LNG plant in Nigeria, which ran on nonassociated gas until gathering systems were built that allowed associated gas to replace part of the original supply stream. Without both of these prerequisites, commingling is not an option. With oil fields getting smaller and more remote, there will commonly not be sufficient reserves of associated gas to justify installing gas infrastructure or gas-processing plants. Even in areas such as the North Sea, where extensive gas infrastructure and a ready local market exist, small fields with short lives of 4 years or so cannot justify the expense of installing a gas export pipeline. Other solutions proposed for dealing with associated gas that cannot be exported by pipeline have involved locating a gas-processing plant adjacent to the oil field and using technologies such as floating LNG, gas-to-liquids (GTL), methanol production, or gas-to-wire electrical power generation. These too tend to require large supplies of gas and considerable investment. For example, a standalone facility capable of consuming 100 to 150 MMscf/D of gas would have a capital expenditure of more than USD 1 billion. In addition, a facility would need a steady nondeclining gas stream, which often can only be achieved by combining associated gas with nonassociated gas from other fields. As such, this has led to these large facilities focusing on stranded gas with reserves of 0.5 Tcf or greater, rather than associated gas.