Bone Modification Patterns Research Articles

Strix chacoensis (Aves: Strigiformes) as an accumulator of vertebrate material in an endangered world: Exploring new taphonomic and ecological perspectives

The objective of this study is to characterize the taphonomic signature of Strix chacoensis in bone and tooth remains of microvertebrates (birds and micromammals). The chaco owl is a bird of prey whose diet and bone modification patterns are little known. In a sample of 41 pellets, an unusual proportion of bird remains over mammal remains was observed. We evaluate the ecological implications of this phenomenon, which could designate Strix chacoensis as a bioindicator of well-preserved forest and shrubland environments when combined with the specific ecological requirements of the prey species. Furthermore, taphonomic patterns vary across taxonomic groups: bird remains exhibited lower modifications due to breakage and digestion compared to micromammal remains. Therefore, this raptor can be characterized as having a minimal impact on bird remains and an intermediate impact on mammal remains.

Meat on the menu: GIS spatial distribution analysis of bone surface damage indicates that Oldowan hominins at Kanjera South, Kenya had early access to carcasses

The shift to increased meat consumption is one of the major adaptive changes in hominin dietary evolution. Although meat eating by Oldowan hominins is well evidenced at Pleistocene archaeological sites in eastern Africa by butchery marks on bones, the methods through which carcasses were acquired (i.e., hunting vs. scavenging) and extent of their completeness (fleshed vs. defleshed) is less certain. This study addresses these issues through a geographic information systems (GIS) comparative analysis of bone modification patterns created by hominins and carnivores observed in the ca. 2.0 Ma assemblage from Kanjera South, Kenya and those of several modern, experimentally modified bone assemblages. Comparison of GIS-generated models shows that the pattern of bone preservation at Kanjera South is similar to that found in experimental bone assemblages that were first butchered and hammerstone fractured by humans, and subsequently scavenged by carnivores. The distribution of bone modifications on the Kanjera fauna also suggests hominins had early access to small bovids. Butchery marks appear almost exclusively in ‘hot zones’—areas where flesh does not typically survive lion consumption—further suggesting Kanjera hominins were not scavenging carnivore kills. Our findings support previous claims that the Kanjera assemblage offers the earliest clear evidence of repeated butchery of antelope carcasses by Early Stone Age (Oldowan) hominins and perhaps the earliest evidence for hunting. Kanjera carnivore damage frequencies are lower than those reported for the slightly younger site of FLK Zinj (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), suggesting differing competitive regimes at the two sites.

Scavenger activity in a peri-urban agricultural setting in the Highveld of South Africa.

Scavenging animals often scatter skeletal remains of forensic interest and cause scavenging damage. This study aimed to identify scavenging animals in the peri-urban agricultural Highveld of South Africa, describe their scattering patterns, and the damage they cause to bone. Ten pig carcasses (Sus scrofa domesticus) (40-80kg) were placed at the University of Pretoria's Mierjie Le Roux Experimental Farm (Highveld) in summer and winter. Motion-activated cameras recorded the scavenging. Scavenger species were identified and their behaviors, scattering pattern, and the damage they cause to bone were described. Scavenging was primarily by black-backed jackals; however, mongooses (slender, yellow, and water mongoose), Cape porcupine, and honey badger were also active. Remains were commonly scattered in two directions by jackals. The distance of scattering was heavily influenced by fencing. The remains were scattered within a maximum radius of 73.7m. The remains were scavenged and skeletonized faster in summer. Jackals caused minimal damage to bone, isolated to superficial, nonspecific scores, furrows, and punctures. A few mongoose bone alterations were present as jagged gnaw marks on the angle of the mandible and gnawing of the vertebral spinous process. Cape porcupine bone damage included gnaw marks on the condyle of a femur and head of humerus, and destruction of the proximal and distal ends of a tibia. The described scattering pattern and bone modification patterns will assist in the recovery and analysis of scavenged remains found in peri-urban agricultural areas in South Africa.

Taphonomy of Small Predators multi-taxa accumulations: palaeoecological implications

Most small terrestrial vertebrate accumulations in archaeological and palaeontological sites result from predation but we are far from having an exhaustive knowledge of modern predators’ diet, ecological niches and bone modification patterns especially in North African sites. The few neotaphonomic referentials available result from taxon-specialized palaeontologists’ initiatives. A survey of the literature on North Africa predators shows that their prey diversity is high and not only include rodent and shrews but also amphibians, squamates, bats and insects. We performed here a pilot taphonomic study of a Moroccan Tyto alba nest pellets including the whole taxa consumed (birds, rodents, shrews, amphibians, insects). We analyzed bone representation, fragmentation and digestion for each taxa and then compared the results. We observe differences between the taxa but on the whole find higher modification levels for this assemblage compared to roost sites of barn owls from other sites. We used for the comparisons homologous bones like the femur and the humerus and also found differences between the taxa. For example, digestion was lower on amphibians and birds than on micromammals. We discuss here some methodological issues as well as archaeological and palaeoenviromental ones by comparison with the Pleisto-Holocene site of El Harhoura II (Morocco).

Evaluating Ancient Whale Exploitation on the Northern Oregon Coast Through Ancient DNA and Zooarchaeological Analysis

ABSTRACTWhales have long been an important part of Pacific Northwest Coast human subsistence and lifeways. Native peoples on the Oregon Coast were not known to hunt whales, but a humpback whale phalange with an embedded bone harpoon at the Par-Tee site (35CLT20) and ethnographic accounts raised the possibility of opportunistic whale hunting. We analyzed a suite of whale remains from Par-Tee and performed ancient DNA-based species identifications on 30 specimens. The assemblage includes gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus, 60.7% of the assemblage), humpbacks (Megaptera novaeangliae, 32.1%), minkes (Balaenoptera acutorostrata, 3.6%), and orcas (Orcinus orca, 3.6%). While the species composition is similar to those found in archaeological deposits from systematic whaling areas in Washington and Vancouver Island, bone modification patterns and element representation reveal important differences. Our analysis demonstrates that whales were likely a supplementary part of human subsistence at Par-Tee and, while opportunistic whale hunting likely occurred, it may have been secondary to scavenging and utilization of beached and/or drift whales.

An experimental lion-to-hammerstone model and its relevance to understand hominin-carnivore interactions in the archeological record

Traditional scavenging models have emphasized that a secondary intervention of hominins to carcasses previously consumed by carnivores should yield high tooth mark frequencies on long bone shafts. It has also been shown that the most feasible scavenging scenario for early Pleistocene African hominins would have been acquiring carcasses from felid kills and prior to hyenid intervention. Oddly, most experiments conducted in the past 20 years have been mostly based on bone modification patterns created by durophagous carnivores. Previous works emphasized that a felid-hominin model would be reflected in low frequencies of tooth-marked shaft specimens. The present work intends to put this hypothesis fully to test by replicating the complete felid-hominin scenario. Hammerstone breakage of bones from wild lion kills was simulated and the resulting anatomical and bone portion distribution of tooth mark frequencies was documented. Here, it is shown that wild lions inflict moderate damage to long bone ends. In contrast, hammerstone-broken shaft specimens bear very few tooth marks (usually <10% of fragments). It is shown that most damage inflicted by lions on carcasses during consumption occur on upper limb bones. Distal portions of radius-ulnae and tibiae are the least affected areas. This referential framework can potentially be applied to the archaeological record to reassert primary access to carcasses in some early Pleistocene African sites and unravel hominin-carnivore contribution to middle and late Pleistocene Eurasian palimpsests.

Carnivore activity in the Sima de los Huesos (Atapuerca, Spain) hominin sample

The Sima de los Huesos (SH) site is the largest accumulation of human remains from the Middle Pleistocene known to date. Studies in the last two decades have proposed different hypotheses to explain carnivore activity in the SH human sample. This study provides new data in order to test these different interpretations, and therefore to understand the role of the carnivores in site formation at SH. Carnivores are usually not the origin of large accumulations of hominin fossils in the Eurasian record. The results show that marks of carnivore activity in the SH sample appear very infrequently, which we interpret as indicating that carnivore activity was very sporadic at the site. This is in stark contrast with previous studies. The comparison of bone modification patterns at SH to actualistic carnivore data allows us to suggest that bears were likely to have been the carnivore responsible for the modification observed on both human and bear fossils.

A taphonomic study of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)

Carnivore taphonomy has been traditionally used for the interpretation of archaeological sites in order to discriminate human-generated or modified from non-anthropic bone assemblages. In most of this actualistic research, the focus has mainly been placed on hyenas and felids, neglecting other carnivores. This paper analyzes the taphonomic impact of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) on equid bones and compares it with the bone modification patterns produced by other canids, such as wolves (Canis lupus) in order to compare medium-/large-sized canid variability on bone modification patterns and elaborate a referential framework which could be feasibly applied to the zooarchaeological record to detect canid intervention on archaeological assemblages in the past.

A cautionary note on the use of captive carnivores to model wild predator behavior: a comparison of bone modification patterns on long bones by captive and wild lions

A study with wild lions in Tarangire National Park (Tanzania) and with captive lions in Cabárceno Reserve (Spain) has yielded two different bone modification patterns, probably as a result of the differences in environmental contexts. Captive lions have modified bones more intensively, both in the form of total number of tooth-marked bones and number of tooth marks per tooth-marked bone, probably because of stereotypic behaviors. This emphasizes the importance of environmental contexts to understand carnivore behavior and their resulting bone modification patterns. It also shows that analogical models based on experiments carried out with captive carnivores may be biased and inadequate as proxies for wild carnivore bone modification behaviors.

Bone modification and destruction patterns of leporid carcasses by Geoffroy’s cat (Leopardus geoffroyi): An experimental study

This paper characterizes the bone modification patterns on leporid carcasses generated by captive Geoffroy’s cats (Leopardus geoffroyi). The modification pattern from non-ingested remains is described in terms of anatomical representation, breakage, and tooth marks. Results from this experimental study suggest that Geoffroy’s cat tends to mostly destroy ribs and vertebrae. A high proportion of fractures were registered in the scapulas, cranium, and the epiphysis of long bones. The innominate, scapula, mandible, and long bones showed high frequencies of tooth marks, dominated by pits and punctures. If the activity of this particular predator is identified in fossil assemblages, the differential inter- and intra-bone survival produced by this agent on small mammal prey should be taken into consideration when discussing anatomical part representation.

The giant hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris: Modelling the bone-cracking behavior of an extinct carnivore

The giant hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris was the largest bone-cracking carnivore that ever existed. With the mass of a lioness, it had massive limbs with shortened distal bones and a heavy, powerfully built mandible with robust, well-developed premolars. All these features reflect its adaptation for dismembering ungulate carcasses, transporting large pieces of them without dragging to the denning site and fracturing bones. This paper estimates the relative contribution of hunting and scavenging to the diet of this extinct hyena, using a combined biomechanical and taphonomic approach. Analysis of the bone-cracking behavior of P. brevirostris was based on the abundance of skeletal elements in the large mammals assemblage from Venta Micena (Guadix-Baza basin, southeast Spain), a locality currently interpreted as an early Pleistocene hyena den. The distribution of major limb bones of ungulates among complete elements, isolated epiphyses and diaphyses were analyzed using contingency tables and correspondence analysis. Results obtained showed that the bones with greater marrow contents (femur, humerus and tibia) were preferentially fractured by the hyenas, while those others with less nutritional value (radius and metapodials) were better represented as complete elements in the assemblage. The quantitative analysis of the preservational state of skeletal elements allowed testing specific patterns of bone modification by the giant hyenas, such as a proximodistal sequence of consumption for humerus and tibia, thus revealing the highly specialized bone-cracking behavior of P. brevirostris. Regression equations adjusted with modern carnivores for body size on craniodental and postcranial measurements provide an average estimate of mass of ∼110 kg for the giant hyena. The high moment arms for masseter and temporalis muscles indicate a substantial strength for bone fracturing with the well-developed premolar teeth. Jaw depth provided resistance against dorsoventral loads during bone-cracking activities. However, the moment arm of resistance for an object positioned at the canines reveals a loss of bite strength compared with spotted hyenas and thus less predatory abilities. These results are in agreement with the scavenging niche deduced for P. brevirostris from taphonomic analysis.

Carnivore tooth-marks, microbial bioerosion, and the invalidation of test of Oldowan hominin scavenging behavior

The shift to increased meat consumption is one of the major adaptive changes in hominin dietary evolution. Although meat eating by Oldowan hominins is well evidenced at Pleistocene archaeological sites in eastern Africa by butchery marks on bones, the methods through which carcasses were acquired (i.e., hunting vs. scavenging) and extent of their completeness (fleshed vs. defleshed) is less certain. This study addresses these issues through a geographic information systems (GIS) comparative analysis of bone modification patterns created by hominins and carnivores observed in the ca. 2.0 Ma assemblage from Kanjera South, Kenya and those of several modern, experimentally modified bone assemblages. Comparison of GIS-generated models shows that the pattern of bone preservation at Kanjera South is similar to that found in experimental bone assemblages that were first butchered and hammerstone fractured by humans, and subsequently scavenged by carnivores. The distribution of bone modifications on the Kanjera fauna also suggests hominins had early access to small bovids. Butchery marks appear almost exclusively in ‘hot zones’—areas where flesh does not typically survive lion consumption—further suggesting Kanjera hominins were not scavenging carnivore kills. Our findings support previous claims that the Kanjera assemblage offers the earliest clear evidence of repeated butchery of antelope carcasses by Early Stone Age (Oldowan) hominins and perhaps the earliest evidence for hunting. Kanjera carnivore damage frequencies are lower than those reported for the slightly younger site of FLK Zinj (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), suggesting differing competitive regimes at the two sites.

Dinámica trófica, estrategias de consumo y alteraciones óseas en la sabana africana: resumen de un proyecto de investigación etoarqueológico (1991-1993)

The main results of a broad etho-archaeological research carried out in East Africa are succintly exposed. These provide an accurate explanation of the behavior exhibited by the main savanna and steppe predators with regard fo the process of carcass consumption, thereby creating a referential framework that can be useful for taphonomists. Carnivore behavior is accounted for in terms of its contextual variability, due to the changing selective pressure according to trophic dynamics. Therefore, the adaptive patterns of each predator are discussed and special emphasis is laid on the role played by ecology in shaping their behavior. Initial consumption strategies, bone accumulating agencies and contexts, the predatory range of each predator and bone modification patterns are the main subjects treated. As an innovative complement to these issues, the spatial analysis of bon

Variability in the behaviour of spotted hyaenas as taphonomic agents

Abstract For over a decade, palaeoanthropologists have pursued research in order to distinguish between the effects of early hominids and contemporary hyaenids on fossil bone assemblages. A number of recent studies examining the behaviour of modern hyaenas has provided specific criteria for determining their influence as taphonomic agents. While certain patterns of bone modification by hyaenas have been identified, the potential variation in hyaena activity has not been fully recognized. A faunal assemblage recovered from a spotted hyaena den located near Koobi Fora, Kenya, exhibited characteristics not previously documented in hyaena accumulations. It provided new insights both into hyaena foraging activities and into the conditions surrounding the formation of den assemblages.

Implications of bone modification in a neolithic faunal assemblage for the study of early hominid butchery and subsistence practices

Bone modification patterns have been widely used to discuss early hominid diet and subsistence strategies. This paper presents the results of a study of bone modification at the Kenyan Postoral Neolithic site of Ngamuriak, and discusses its relevance to the interpretation of faunas from early hominid sites. Neolithic butchery of large bovids at Ngamuriak appears generally similar to that reported for large bovids from the FLK-Zinjanthropus site at Olduvai Gorge, specifically cut marks on limb shafts are common in both assemblages. This counters Shipman's contentions that early hominid butchery differs from the Neolithic pattern, and that a high frequency of cuts on limb shafts at early hominid sites can be used as an indication of early hominid scavenging activities. However, butchery patterns differ between large and small bovids at Ngamuriak and between small bovids at Ngamuriak and FLK-Zinjanthropus. Small bovids at FLK-Zinjanthropus are more intensively processed than at Ngmuriak. The difference between large and small bovid butchery at Ngamuriak gives some time depth to the findings of some recent ethnoarchaeological studies and emphasises the importance of considering different size categories separately in the interpretation of early hominid sites. Whilst there are some areas where Neolithic bone modification is patterned by recent technology, Neolithic faunal assemblages can provide a useful link between early hominid and contemporary faunal assemblages.

Taphonomic analysis of late Pleistocene mastodon occurrences: evidence of butchery by North American Paleo-Indians

Taphonomic analysis of several late Pleistocene mastodon (Mammut americanum) skeletons excavated in southern Michigan provides compelling evidence of mastodon butchery by Paleo-Indians. The occurrence of butchery and details of butchering technique are inferred primarily from patterns of bone modification. An important aspect of butchering practice was production and use of tools fashioned from bones of the animal being butchered. Evidence for butchery and bone tool use includes matching marks on the conarticular surfaces of disarticulated pairs of bones; cutmarks on bones; green bone fracturing; use wear, secondary flaking, and impact features on bone fragments; and burned bone. Interpretation of these features is facilitated by information on patterns of bone distribution and disarticulation preserved in a primary depositional context. Preliminary comparisons among nine sites indicate that putative butchering sites differ consistently and in a variety of ways from sites that appear to record no human involvement. Although based on a small sample of sites, the apparent frequency of butchered individuals relative to those that were not butchered is unexpectedly high. These findings provide new evidence of a well-developed “bone technology” employed by the late Pleistocene human inhabitants of eastern North America. In addition, these data offer circumstantial support for the hypothesis that human hunting was an important factor in the late Pleistocene extinction of mastodons.

Mastodon butchery: microscopic evidence of carcass processing and bone tool use

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) examination of bone surfaces from the Pleasant Lake mastodon, excavated in southern Michigan, documents features indicative of butchery. These features are identified by comparison with modern bones modified by human and natural processes. We report new studies of (1) marks made by bone tools during removal of meat from and disarticulation of carcasses and (2) use wear developed on bone tools. We also apply previously developed criteria for recognizing stone tool cutmarks and stages in the burning of bone. The Pleasant Lake site, dated to between 10,395 ± 100 and 12,845 ± 165 b.p., provides compelling evidence of mastodon butchery and bone tool use. Another site, near New Hudson, Michigan, provides replication of much of this evidence. Together these sites offer new examples of patterns of bone modification and extend the geographic and temporal representation of the much discussed, but still controversial, late Pleistocene bone technology.