Bone Char Research Articles

Dried Leaves Powder of Adiantum capillus-veneris as an Efficient Biosorbent for Hazardous Crystal Violet Dye from Water Resources

The dyeing industry uses many chemicals and dyes. After the dying process is completed, they release a significant amount of dyes in wastewater. The dyes’ color emissions are extremely poisonous and dangerous for aquatic and terrestrial life. Due to the toxic nature of dyes, the current study was carried out to evaluate whether it would be effective to employ an adsorption procedure with leaves from the Adiantum capillus-veneris plant as an adsorbent to remove commonly used textile dyes from an aqueous dye solution and wastewater. The effect of pH, concentration, time and the adsorbent dose on the adsorption process was studied in order to determine the maximum adsorption under ideal conditions. The selected pH was 3; the optimum concentration was 30 ppm with a contact time of 90 min and the optimized adsorbent dose was 60 mg. The absorbent under study showed excellent results when compared with commercial adsorbents i.e., animal charcoal and silica gel. The leaves of the Adiantum capillus-veneris plant revealed a maximum removal of 90.36 percent crystal violet dye (adsorption capacity (Qe) 9.05 mg/g) without any treatment to activate or alter the surface chemistry of the biosorbent. Its effectiveness was also tested with water gathered from several sources, including canal water, tap water, distilled water, and saline water, to determine whether it was practical. In both the canal and the tap water, the adsorbent displayed good removal efficiency. From the results of the current study, it can be inferred that the leaves of the Adiantum capillus-veneris plant are a reasonably priced biosorbent that can be used to remove toxic dyes from wastewater to protect water bodies from toxic pollution and can be used to treat industrial wastewater directly.

Bench-scale integrated bone and biochar bed treatment of geogenic fluoride contaminated groundwater from Bongo in Ghana

The article explores the adsorption of fluoride in groundwater and the synergistic properties of a mixture of bone char and biochar. The bone char and biochar were produced using cattle bones and coconut husks, bamboo, neem tree and palm kernel in a locally constructed double-barrel retort with particle size ranging from 0.05 to 0.315 mm. The morphology of the char was examined using a scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive spectroscopy for elements. The surface functional groups were assessed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Almost all the fluoride was removed from the groundwater within 15–27 min of column treatment. Cattle bone char standalone treatment was the most effective adsorbent, with a removal rate of 91.4%, which is almost identical to the integrated removal rate of 91.1% for bone char and coconut husk biochar. The presence of the hydroxyapatite groups in the bone char together with the high surface areas of the chars increased the integrated bed's effectiveness in lowering fluoride concentrations in contaminated groundwater from 3.6 mg/L to 1.5 mg/L with an adsorption capacity of 0.084 mg/g. The breakthrough curves were predicted with the bed depth service time model under the same operational conditions. The integrated bed showed almost 100% efficacy in removing fluoride from contaminated groundwater with a 3.6 mg/L fluoride concentration within a breakthrough time of 15–27 min. This was due to the interplay between the chars' high surface areas and the hydroxyapatite groups in the bone char, which enhance adsorption and the synergistic effect of the integrated char.

Bone char modification by iron to improve its capacity for adsorbing fluoride from an aqueous solution

High fluoride concentrations in groundwater have attracted great concern worldwide because many people are afflicted by fluorosis due to water consumption. In this work, the fluoride adsorption from water onto bone char (BC) modified with iron sulfate (BCM) was studied as an option for eliminating fluoride from drinking water. The experimental data for the adsorption equilibrium of fluoride on BCMs were procured in a batch adsorber. The synthesis conditions of BCMs were optimized for improving the adsorption capacity of BCMs, and the optimal BCM was designated as BCM2. The BCMs were characterized by different analytical techniques, the BCMs surface exhibited an irregular morphology and the chemical nature was basic, and the BCMs were mesoporous materials. The Langmuir isotherm satisfactorily interpreted the experimental data of the fluoride adsorption isotherms on BCMs. The basic sites of BC and BCMs were quantified and identified in this work. The main adsorption mechanism of fluoride on the BCMs was the electrostatic attraction between the fluoride and the basic sites of BCMs, and the adsorption capacities of BC and BCMs towards fluoride increased almost linearly with the concentration of basic sites so that the enhancement of the adsorption capacity of BCMs was attributed to the increase of basic sites during the modification. Furthermore, the BCM2 adsorption capacity was lessened by incrementing the pH from 5 to 9, and this behavior was ascribed to the reduction of the electrostatic attraction interactions between the BCM2 surface basic sites and fluoride in the solution. The adsorption process was endothermic because the adsorption capacities of BC and BCM2 toward fluoride were raised by incrementing the solution temperature from 15 to 35 °C. The BCM2 presented a high capacity for adsorbing fluoride of 14.4 mg g−1 at 25 °C and a pH of 5.

Role of superoxide radical and singlet oxygen in peroxymonosulfate activation by iron-doped bone char for efficient acetaminophen degradation

Bone char is a hydroxyapatite-rich product obtained by calcining animal bones. However, the role of inorganic hydroxyapatite is often overlooked in bone char-catalyzed persulfate systems. In this work, iron was doped into swine bone-derived biochar (Fe-BC) by simple impregnation, and the Fe-BC catalysts were used for the first time to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS). The obtained Fe-BC/PMS system could rapidly degrade the target pollutants (0.0529 s−1, 90 s) employing singlet oxygen (1O2) as the dominant reactive oxygen species (ROS). The characterization results demonstrated that iron was mainly intercalated into the catalyst by substituting calcium sites in swine bone biochar, and the Fe-BC composition was significantly affected by annealing temperature. A comprehensive study including quenching experiments, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), chemical probes, and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) revealed that 1O2 was the dominant ROS. According to the characterization results, 1O2 was generated from the conversion of superoxide radical (O2•−) and the self-dissociation of PMS. Iron was the main active site of Fe-BC catalysts, and the carbon defects and oxygen-containing groups also played roles in catalyzing PMS. The Fe-BC/PMS system exhibited outstanding oxidative capability over a wide pH range (3.0–9.0) and was resistant to interference from some high concentrations of anions (Cl−, NO3–, and SO42−). This work provides a new perspective on using animal bone-derived biochar catalysts in advanced oxidation processes.

Adsorption/desorption behavior of ionic dyes on sintered bone char

The aim of this study was to investigate the regularity and differences in the adsorption/desorption behavior of bovine rib char (BC) as an adsorbent material for the cationic Malachite Green (MG) and anionic Sunset Yellow (SY) dyes. The effects of pyrolysis temperature, adsorbent dosage, solution pH, initial concentration, contact time, and adsorption temperature were investigated. The pore characteristics of BC were determined by the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method. The changes in functional groups before and after the adsorption of BC were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. And the chemical composition and surface morphology of BC were characterized by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The experimental data were further analyzed using different isotherm models, kinetic models, and thermodynamic equations, and an understanding of the adsorption studies was carried out. The results show that BC is 90% mesoporous with a BET specific surface area of approximately 150 m2/g. BC is rich in active sites at 700 °C and performs best in the adsorption process. The adsorption of MG increases with increasing pH, while the opposite is true for SY, with optimum pH values of 7 and 3, respectively. Ionic dyes bind to BC easily (the fitted values for the Freundlich model 1/n are all less than 0.5, R2 > 0.748). The maximum adsorption capacity (Qmax) of MG was much higher than that of SY (the Langmuir model indicated Qmax of 1168.4 mg/g and 47.0 mg/g, respectively, R2 > 0.830). The adsorption of ionic dyes on BC was mainly non-homogeneous surface chemisorption, which was spontaneous (ΔG<0, ΔH>0). The desorption of BC after adsorption of MG and SY in HCl and NaOH solutions, respectively, was better. Analysis of the adsorption contribution of the BC fraction showed that the mineral fraction played an important role in the adsorption process (about 94%), while the organic fraction contributed about 6%. The experimental results indicate that the adsorption mechanism of MG and SY on BC can be attributed to the filling of mesopores, electrostatic interaction between the ionic polar sites of BC and the different charged dyes, the formation of chemical bonds between the oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of BC and the dyes, and the ionic exchange between the polar sites of BC such as Ca2+, PO43−, CO32− and OH−.

Efficient lead immobilization by bio-beads containing Pseudomonas rhodesiae and bone char

Mineralization of lead ions (Pb2+) to pyromorphite using phosphorus-containing materials is an effective way to remediate lead (Pb) contamination. Bone char is rich in phosphorus, but its immobilization of Pb2+ is limited by poor phosphate release. To utilize the phosphorus in bone char and provide a suitable growth environment for phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, bone char and Pseudomonas rhodesiae HP-7 were encapsulated into bio-beads, and the immobilization performance and mechanism of Pb in solution and soil by bio-beads were investigated. The results showed that 137 mg/g of phosphorus was released from bone char in the presence of the HP-7 strain. Pb2+ removal efficiency reached 100 % with an initial Pb2+ concentration of 1 mM, bone char content of 6 g/L, and bio-bead dosage of 1 %. Most Pb2+ was immobilized on the surface of the bio-beads as Pb5(PO4)3Cl. The soil remediation experiments showed a 34 % reduction in the acid-soluble fraction of Pb. The bio-beads showed good stability in long-term (30 d) soil remediation. The present study shows that bone char can be turned into an efficient Pb immobilization material in the presence of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria. Thus, bio-beads are expected to be used in the remediation of Pb-contaminated environments.

Effects of oxidative weathering on Raman spectra of charcoal and bone chars: consequences in archaeology and paleothermometry

Chars are useful proxies in many disciplines such as the geosciences and archaeology. Raman spectrometry is frequently used in the characterization of such materials. However, when they are ancient and potentially altered, chars have the particularity of being oxidized, which can strongly disturb the spectra and seriously distort their interpretation. In this study, we highlight the Raman parameters affected by oxidative weathering based on comparisons between the spectra of experimental and ancient chars, of vegetal and animal origin. This makes it possible to differentiate between unweathered and weathered chars and we show that the recent methods of Raman thermometry and precursor discrimination are no longer valid when applied to oxidized chars. Nonetheless, it remains possible to estimate the formation temperature of a charcoal when some fragments are preserved at the micrometre scale. Furthermore, we propose an original tool that enable us to distinguish the vegetal or animal origin of ancient and oxidized chars. We successfully apply this new tool to charred hearth residues of the Bruniquel cave (France).

PERFORMANCE OF JUTE MALLOW AS INFLUENCED BY ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZA FUNGI (Glomus deserticola) AND BONE CHAR ON AN ALFISOL OF SUDAN SAVANNAH AGROECOLOGY, NIGERIA

The study investigated phosphorous release from bone char and the response of jute mallow to the combined application of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) and bone char as well. An Alfisol from the Sudan Savannah agro-ecology of Northern Nigeria was used for this study. The soil was sterilized and subjected to routine analysis. Fresh cow bones were collected from the abattoir of Dutse and pyrolysed at a temperature of 400oC. The bone char was inoculated and incubated with AMF (Glomus deserticola) to determine its effect on release of available P from the bonechar. The experiment adopted a completely randomized design and consisted of six treatment combinations (three rates of bone char: 10, 20 and 30 g; two levels of AMF: inoculated and uninoculated) replicated three times. Incubation studies revealed that Available Phosphorous (AP) obtained from bone char was enhanced under the influence of AMF with 364.60 mg kg-1 obtained from 30 g/pot bone char AMF combination. Agronomic parameters involving height, number of leaves and dry matter yield were recorded at 3, 6 and 9 weeks after planting. Sole bone char application at 10 g/pot recorded higher plant heights and number of leaves. Plants under sole bone char applications performed better than those with combined AMF inoculations and bone char. Dry matter yield obtained were poor and were not consistent with the treatment rates. Bone char proved to be a potential viable source of plant available phosphorous. There was a proportional and significant (p&lt;0.05) increase in quantity of AP under the influence of AMF with increase in rates of bone char.

Application of Centrifugation and Soilless Filtration Technologies in the Beer Production Process and Empirical Research on Their Impact on Beer Quality

By delving into the centrifugation and diatomaceous earth-free filtration techniques in various crucial aspects of beer production, this study aims to quantify their impacts on beer quality and environmental sustainability. Firstly, the effectiveness of these techniques in enhancing beer clarity and stability is compared through experiments, with a detailed analysis of their precision and chemical mechanisms in removing suspended particles. Additionally, their advantages in regulating beer taste and retaining flavor compounds are explored through sensory evaluation and chemical composition analysis. Most importantly, the focus is on sustainability and environmental friendliness, revealing the advantages of diatomaceous earth-free filtration techniques in reducing environmental burdens and carbon footprints through a comparison of filter material usage, waste generation, and energy efficiency. The results provide essential scientific evidence for the brewing industry to support its transition towards a more sustainable and eco-friendly direction. Centrifugation and diatomaceous earth-free filtration are two important innovations in modern brewing industry, playing a critical role in improving beer quality and production efficiency. In traditional beer production, the removal of suspended solids and liquid separation are crucial steps, and centrifugation and diatomaceous earth-free filtration technologies provide brewers with more precise and controllable tools. Centrifugation, as an efficient solid-liquid separation device, has been widely applied in the beer production process. It separates suspended yeast, proteins, and impurities from the fermenting liquid through centrifugal force, significantly enhancing beer clarity and stability. Furthermore, centrifugation can be used to control yeast concentration, thus influencing the flavor characteristics of beer, offering brewers more options for process control. Meanwhile, diatomaceous earth-free filtration is a revolutionary process that eliminates the use of traditional filter aids like silica or bone char, opting for more environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives. This technology employs microfiltration membranes, nanomaterials, or other efficient filtration media to effectively remove suspended solids while retaining yeast and other beneficial components, thereby preserving beer’s texture and flavor characteristics.

Optimization of synthesis variables and characterization of devilfish bone chars for the removal of cadmium(II) from water

Optimization of synthesis variables and characterization of devilfish bone chars for the removal of cadmium(II) from water

The Adsorption Performance and Characterization of Activated Charcoal of Bone Char Against Acid Orange 7

&lt;p align="center"&gt;&lt;em&gt;The use of Acid Orange 7, a synthetic dye, in the textile industry harms the environment because it is carcinogenic. This research aims to remove the Acid Orange 7 dye dissolved in the water. This study used cow bone charcoal as an alternative adsorbent made by the carbonization method. In addition, the batch adsorption method was applied in the bleaching process of the synthetic dye waste, Acid Orange 7. Several tests, such as SEM, EDX, BET, XRD, and FTIR, were carried out to determine the characteristics and ability of activated charcoal from cow bones as an adsorbent for acid Orange 7 dye waste. Other organic adsorbents, such as graphene oxide and activated carbon, were used to compare the results. Bone char adsorption Acid Orange 7 62.2% efficiently. The adsorption efficiency of activated carbon is 79.8%, while graphene oxide has an adsorption rate of 89.4%. The findings revealed that bone char could be used to cure synthetic dye waste, Acid Orange 7, as an alternative. Additional treatment &lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

Rapid Simulation of Decade-Scale Charcoal Aging in Soil: Changes in Physicochemical Properties and Their Environmental Implications.

In situ aging can change biochar properties, influencing their ecosystem benefits or risks over time. However, there is a lack of field verification of laboratory methods that attempt simulation of long-term natural aging of biochar. We exploited a decade-scale natural charcoal (a proxy for biochar) aging event to determine which lab-aging methods best mimicked field aging. We oxidized charcoal by ultraviolet A radiation (UVA), H2O2, or monochloramine (NH2Cl), and compared it to 10-year field-aged charcoal. We considered seven selected charcoal properties related to surface chemistry and organic matter release, and found that oxidation with 30% H2O2 most representatively simulated 10-year field aging for six out of seven properties. UVA aging failed to approximate oxidation levels while showing a distinctive dissolved organic carbon (DOC) release pattern. NH2Cl-aged charcoal was the most different, showing an increased persistent free radical (PFR) concentration and lower hydrophilicity. All lab oxidation techniques overpredicted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon release. The O/C ratio was well-correlated with DOC release, PFR concentration, surface charge, and charcoal pH, indicating the possibility to accurately predict biochar aging with a reduced suite of physicochemical properties. Overall, our rapid and verified lab-aging methods facilitate research toward derisking and enhancing long-term benefits of biochar application.

Molecular aggregation effect on the antagonistic adsorption of pharmaceuticals from aqueous solution using bone char: DFT calculations and multicomponent experimental studies

This study reports theoretical calculations and experimental results to understand the impact of molecular aggregation on the multicomponent adsorption of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (i.e., acetaminophen, diclofenac and naproxen) on bone char from aqueous solutions. DFT calculations were performed to estimate the main molecular properties of monomers, dimers and trimers of these pharmaceuticals. The molecular properties of single compounds and their aggregates were used to explain the steric factors involved in the antagonistic and endothermic adsorption of these pharmaceuticals in binary and ternary systems. It was established that the molecular properties of homogeneous and heterogeneous dimers and trimers of these adsorbates played a relevant role in the multicomponent adsorption mechanism using bone char. Results showed that a transition from a multilayer to monolayer adsorption process could occur depending on the adsorption temperature and the presence of pharmaceutical co-adsorbate(s). Overall, the multicomponent adsorption of naproxen was not significantly affected by the competition effect generated by other pharmaceuticals present in the aqueous solution but its removal mechanism was essentially via the formation of a monolayer. In contrast, the acetaminophen adsorption implied a multilayer mechanism mainly due to the molecular dimensions of its aggregates. Adsorbent characterization results suggested that the phosphate group from hydroxyapatite contained in bone char played a relevant role in the multicomponent adsorption of these organic compounds. These new findings are useful to comprehend the role of molecular aggregation of organic pollutants on the adsorbent performance for water depollution.

Modelling of manganese-contaminated groundwater through batch experiments: Implications for bone char remediation

In this study, bone char was successfully produced by the thermal pyrolysis of cattle bones at 450 °C using a locally designed double barrel retort drum. The bone char was characterised by the point of zero charge, scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive x-ray, Fourier-transform infrared, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. Manganese (II) contaminated groundwater and laboratory-prepared aqueous manganese solutions were treated with the prepared bone char. Modelling of the manganese (II) remediation of the natural groundwater by cattle bone char was investigated for its application to water quality. Adsorption kinetics and investigations of the Freundlich and Langmuir model isotherms were part of the batch adsorption experiments that were utilised to evaluate the removal capabilities of the char under different metal concentrations, contact time, pH, and char dose. The thermodynamic variables showed that manganese (II) ions adsorption by the cattle bone char was an exothermic and spontaneous process. Regarding regression coefficients, the Freundlich isotherm model outperformed the Langmuir model in predicting the best match or fit for the adsorption data. The maximum removal rate of manganese (II) ions by the bone char in 60 min was estimated to be 99.2% under laboratory-controlled conditions. An amount of 0.515 mg/L of manganese (out of 0.645 mg/L) from natural groundwater was adsorbed on 1 g of 0.315 mm bone char, whereas 0.05 mm of the bone char adsorbed 0.639 mg/L manganese (II) ions. The use of bone char from cattle bones is an effective and sustainable solution for the treatment of manganese contamination of groundwater. The char of cattle bone can be utilised as a safe and environmentally acceptable adsorbent.

Resource utilization of bovine bone to prepare biochar as persulfate activator for phenol degradation

Designing non-metallic catalyst as persulfate (PS) activator for effective organic pollutants degradation in water is challenging. Herein, bovine-derived bone chars (BBCs) were prepared with different temperatures (300, 500 and 700 °C), which contained ordered mesoporous structures, thus realizing great phenol uptake (149.84 mg/g) with 100% degradation in combination with PS within 180 min. Furthermore, both reactive species (SO4•−; ·OH, O2•− and 1O2) and electron transfer process contributed to phenol removal due to the abundant defects and functional groups on BBC700. Owing to the multiples mechanisms, the BBC700/PS system exhibited an excellent phenol mineralization rate of 89.6 ± 1.85%, accompanied by strong anti-jamming capacity to relatively extensive pH range (3.0–7.0), various co-existing constituents and water bodies. Additionally, DFT calculations and GC-MS were used to illustrate the 7 kinds of degradation intermediates and the overall toxicity was efficiently alleviated, thus proposing a tailored non-metallic catalyst with great potential in water purification.

Removal of boron from water by batch adsorption onto bovine bone char: optimization, kinetics and equilibrium

Removal of boron from water by batch adsorption onto bovine bone char: optimization, kinetics and equilibrium

A novel approach for the defluorination of groundwater using trivalent-metal hydroxide/bone-char composite adsorbent

The adsorption capacity of trivalent-metal hydroxide-bone char composite (TMH/BC) for defluorination of ground water was investigated. The operating parameters for the bone char (BC) production process were optimized. The best adsorption efficiency of 88%, was recorded for the BC produced at 450 °C for 3 h of thermal treatment. The BC impregnated in hydrated aluminum sulfate and coated with the trivalent metal oxide (Al(OH)3) showed higher fluoride removal efficiency of 99% compared to BC (88%) and hydroxyapatite (HAP) (87%). The SEM and EDS characterization for the modified BC confirmed the effect of thermal treatment and aluminum dispersion on the surface of the BC. The core elements determined in TMH/BC were calcium, carbon, phosphorus, oxygen, aluminum, and sodium. The fluoride was identified to be linked with the aluminum composites. The TMH/BC composite has improved specific surface area of 379 m2/g compared to GBC with 350.2 m2/g. The adsorption kinetic model of TMH/BC was fitted to the Temkin isotherm model while BC and HAP were fitted with Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. Due to its higher adsorption ability compared to the tested adsorbents, TMH/BC was more suitable adsorbent to remove excess fluoride present in the groundwater.

Analysis of Breakthrough Curve Performance Using Theoretical and Empirical Models: Hg2+ Removal by Bone Char from Synthetic and Real Water

Analysis of Breakthrough Curve Performance Using Theoretical and Empirical Models: Hg2+ Removal by Bone Char from Synthetic and Real Water

Removal of acid yellow dye 17 from aqueous solutions using an activated bone char

Abstract Textile dyes are causing serious environmental problems in the world. The treatment of dyes from textile wastewater is necessary to protect the environment. Adsorbents with high adsorption potential from local materials are required to solve these problems. In this study, the treatment of acid yellow 17 dye from aqueous solutions was carried out using an activated bone char, collected from slaughterhouses. The dye removal performance was measured using a UV-Vis spectrometer. Adsorption experiments were carried out in a batch process under different operating conditions including initial dye concentration, adsorbent dose, contact time, and solution pH. From the experimental data, the maximum dye removal efficiency of 91.43% was achieved at an optimum pH of 2, contact time of 120 min, initial dye concentration of 50 mg/L, and adsorbent dose of 20 g/L. Adsorption models: adsorption isotherm and adsorption kinetics of acid yellow 17 dye onto the activated animal bone char, the data fitted well with the Langmuir isotherm model (R2 = 0.9245) and pseudo-second-order model (R2 = 0.9967), respectively. This study indicated that the activated bone char, which is obtained from animal slaughterhouses and discharged as waste into the environment has a high potential to remove acid yellow 17 dye from polluted water.

Devilfish bone char, an alternative material to be used as bioanode in microbial fuel cells

This work aimed to evaluate the devilfish bone char as an alternative material to be used as a bioanode in a microbial fuel cell (MFC) applied in bioenergy production from the pantoprazole biodegradation. The devilfish is an invasive species in Mexico and other countries, so its control and eradication are based on the integral use of its biomass. In addition, the bones are unusable waste and could be used as a raw material to manufacture the bioanode. Two MFCs with an anaerobic anode single chamber of 125 mL were operated independently using the fabricated bioanode and the carbon felt (conventional anode). Both MFCs were fed with 1 g/L of pantoprazole as substrate with a chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 210 ± 1.3 mg/L and 1.2 g of soil as inoculum. The two MFCs were characterized electrochemically, and the COD removal percentage was measured as an indicator of the pantoprazole biodegradation. The results showed that the MFC operated with the bioanode had a better performance than the conventional anode, since it reached a maximum power density of 1.22 mW/m2, being 156% higher than carbon felt. These values were consistent with the COD removal percentages reached in 10 days with values of 47.17 ± 0.23 and 43.34 ± 0.41%, respectively. Therefore, these findings provide a low-cost alternative carbonaceous material for the sustainable construction of MFC applied to produce bioenergy from the biodegradation of pharmaceutical products.