Body Communication Research Articles

Metasurface loaded dual band antenna for high gain on- and off- body communication

Metasurfaces are specially made materials designed to have unique properties not found in nature. They are categorized into different types, such as artificial magnetic conductor (AMC), partial reflecting surfaces (PRS), and frequency selective surfaces (FSS). Among these, FSS is commonly used in today’s technology to improve antenna performance, especially in boosting signal strength by blocking unwanted radiation. Recent research is focused on creating FSS-based antennas for Ultra-wideband (UWB) or single band applications, with a significant emphasis on enhancing signal strength. Unlike traditional methods, this study concentrates on designing antennas that are both simple in shape and offers broader frequency coverage, specifically for 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz applications. To enhance antenna performance, a dual-band FSS is employed, optimizing the system for improved operation at both resonating frequencies. This results in a high-gain antenna system, which is further investigated for body area network (BAN) systems, considering the crucial performance metric of specific absorption rate (SAR). The findings are compared with recently reported FSS-based antennas to underscore their scientific contribution and potential for high gain, low SAR applications within the 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz frequency bands.

Determining carrier frequency for implantable human body communication based on transmission efficiency–electromagnetic interference trade-off

This study proposes a novel methodology for determining the optimal carrier frequency for implantable human body communication (HBC) by focusing on the trade-off between transmission efficiency and electromagnetic interference (EMI) robustness. Traditional radio communication technologies use high-frequency bands, which pose some challenges, such as increased power consumption, EMI with other devices, and security risks. Implantable HBC is a promising alternative, wherein the human body is used as a transmission medium. Through phantom experiments simulating the human abdomen, we assess the transmission characteristics of implantable HBC between an abdominal neurostimulator and an external controller across a frequency range of 1–100 MHz. Results revealed that maximum transmission gain was achieved at 37.2 MHz. Moreover, rapid signal attenuation occurred beyond a minimal distance from the skin, indicating enhanced communication efficiency, reduced EMI, and enhanced information security. An evaluation index (EI) was also proposed to quantitatively assess the balance between transmission efficiency and EMI and determine an appropriate carrier frequency for specific implantable HBC applications. This study advances the field of implantable medical devices by optimizing communication performance while addressing key challenges in EMI and security.

Hardware-realized secure transceiver for human body communication in wireless body area networks

Wireless body area networks (WBANs), featuring wearable and implantable devices for collecting physiological data are increasingly critical in healthcare for enabling continuous remote monitoring, diagnostic improvements, and treatment optimization. Secure communication within WBANs is essential to protect sensitive health data from unauthorized access and manipulation. This paper introduces a novel secure digital (SD)- human body communication (HBC) Transceiver (TR) system, tailored for WBAN applications, that prioritizes security and offers significant enhancements in size, power efficiency, speed, and data transmission efficiency over current solutions. Leveraging a combination of frequency-selective (FS) digital transmission with walsh codes (WCs) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and incorporating one-round encryption and decryption modules, the system complies with the IEEE 802.15.6 standard, ensuring broad compatibility. Specifically, the QAM-based SD-HBC TR system exhibits a 4% reduction in chip area, a 7.6% increase in operating frequency, a 3.4% decrease in power consumption, a 27.5% reduction in latency, and improvements of 33% in throughput and 35.5% in efficiency. Importantly, it achieves a bit error rate (BER) of up to 10-8 , demonstrating high reliability across communication methods. This research significantly advances secure communication in WBANs, offering a promising approach for enhancing the reliability, efficiency, and security of healthcare monitoring technologies.

A comprehensive review of wearable antenna design for On-Body and Off-Body communication

Today age of advancement one of the fastest growing fields of the technology is wearable electronics and device. In the recent advancement the wearable devices for on and off body communication is going expeditiously. For the wearable wireless communication, wearable antennas are mostly used due to its compact size, self powered, light weight, low profile, portable wireless communication and sensing. This paper throws light on wearable antennas for on body and off body communication including their applications, advantages and disadvantages. A comparative study is conducted on designing of different on body and off body wearable antennas and parameters of designed antenna such as their size, shape, gain, SAR have been compared and analyzed. In this paper also discussed the impact of the wearable antenna on human body and impact of human body on antenna.

On body and off body communication using a compact wideband and high gain wearable textile antenna

In this paper, a compact low-profile dual-band wearable textile antenna is proposed for on-body and off-body communications. The presented antenna works efficiently in the 5G n79 frequency band (4.4 − 5 GHz) and the ISM band (5.725 − 5.875 GHz). The designed antenna has an ultra-wide impedance bandwidth of 2.01 GHz and peak realized gains of 10.5 dBi and 12 dBi at 4.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz, respectively. The antenna has a small footprint (π × 0.3λ02), which is inspired by circular fractal geometry. The performance of the presented wearable antenna is evaluated at various body parts, including the arm, wrist, and chest. The link margin is evaluated in the on-body and off-body communication scenarios, i.e., communication with the implantable antenna and the outside-body antenna, which is 80 dB and 65 dB at 4.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz, respectively. The 1 gm/10 gm specific absorption rate values at 4.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz are 0.12/0.098 and 0.11/0.082, respectively, which are significantly lower than the standard values, making the proposed antenna suitable for modern wearable applications.

Dual-band MIMO antenna with low mutual coupling for 2.4/5.8 GHz communication and wearable technologies.

To satisfy the requirements of modern communication systems and wearables using 2.4/5.8 GHz band this paper presents a simple, compact, and dual-band solution. The antenna is extracted from a circular monopole by inserting various patches and stubs. The genetic algorithm is utilized to optimize the parameters and achieve the best possible results regarding bandwidth and gain. Afterward, a 2-port multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) configuration is created by positioning an identical second single element perpendicularly to the first one. The electrical size of the suggested MIMO configuration is 0.26 λL × 0.53 λL, where λL represents the free space wavelength at lower resonance of 2.45 GHz. The common ground technique is adopted to further reduce and achieve the accepted level of mutual coupling of the MIMO configuration. The presented MIMO antenna offers a low mutual coupling of < -27 dB with 0.2 envelope correlation coefficient (ECC). The antenna has a gain of around 6.2 dBi and 6.5 dBi at resonating frequencies of 2.45 GHz and 5.4 GHz. Furthermore, the specific absorption rate (SAR) analysis of the MIMO antenna offers a range inside of the standard values, showing its potential for On/Off body communications. The comparison with already published works shows that the proposed antenna achieves better results in either compact size or wide operational bandwidth along with low mutual coupling.

The role and function of body communication in physiotherapy practice: A qualitative thematic synthesis

Communication is essential to physiotherapy practice. While verbal communication has been a primary focus in research, less is known about body communication. Body communication refers to communication achieved by means other than words, such as touch, eye contact, prosody, and proxemics. This review aims to provide detailed knowledge of the roles and functions of body communication in physiotherapy practice and identify areas for future research. We undertook a systematic search and thematic synthesis of published qualitative literature in October 2022. Four databases were searched with results screened to identify articles providing insight into the roles and functions of body communication. Quality appraisal of included studies was completed. Thematic synthesis was used to generate findings. Thirty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. Four themes were constructed to reflect the roles and functions of body communication in physiotherapy practice: conveying the physiotherapist’s attention and interest; enabling patients to contribute to care; guiding physiotherapy intervention through bodily dialogue; and building the therapeutic relationship. The findings demonstrate how body communication shapes the therapeutic process and how sensitive and responsive body communication supports a more reciprocal and person-centred approach to care. Research is needed to obtain more in-depth and nuanced accounts of body communication to support the clinical application of findings.

EQS-Band Human Body Communication through frequency hopping and MCU-Based transmitter

Human Body Communication (HBC) is an emerging technology that uses the human body as a communication channel. It offers significant advantages over traditional RF techniques in terms of power consumption and security. In recent developments, Electro-quasistatic HBC (EQS-HBC) in the frequency band below 1 MHz has been employed to enable communication without signal radiation beyond the body, effectively turning the body into a wired communication medium. This paper delves into the application of the EQS band for HBC. Experimental results show the determinantal effect of intermittent noise that sporadically disrupts communications across the band of interest. To address this challenge, we introduce an innovative frequency-hopping transceiver system, which allows the transmitter to seamlessly adapt to different frequencies. In addition, we present a miniature transmitter design, incorporating a simplified micro-controller unit (MCU) to facilitate the implementation of HBC. Furthermore, to validate this proposed design, we present a fully functional prototype of an HBC system that effectively employs frequency hopping techniques for practical applications.

Next-generation healthcare infrastructure based on cross-layer optimization of biosignal sensing and communication

The human body already uses electric signals to transmit information to and from the brain and the rest of the body but is there potential to harness the complex interactions between living organisms and electromagnetic waves to advance scientific disciplines? Associate Professor Dairoku Muramatsu is the head of the Muramatsu Laboratory. He leads the Bioelectromagnetics Research Group, Graduate School of Information Science and Engineering Mechanical and Intelligent Systems, University of Electro-Communications, Japan. He is a specialist in bioelectromagnetic engineering that spans engineering and medicine interested in the interactions between living organisms and electromagnetic waves and how improved understanding of these interactions could lead to practical, real-world impacts. A key principle behind Muramatsu's research is that by passing a weak electric current through the human body and using the body itself as a path for electric signals, it is possible to exchange information between people and objects that come into contact with them. He is working to create innovative and highly usable technology by making full use of simulation and manufacturing. As research on human body communication, which is wireless communication that uses the human body itself as a transmission path for high-frequency signals, findings will play a key role in the spread of wearable devices. Muramatsu has already proposed bioelectromagnetic models that serve as a tool for a wide range of bioelectronics and sensor designs, including non-invasive blood glucose monitoring using bioelectromagnetic response as an evaluation criterion.

Comprehensive review of the human body communication system for wireless body area network applications

Comprehensive review of the human body communication system for wireless body area network applications

2.4 GHz/5.6 GHz Dual‐Use Wearable Patch Antenna Integrated with Electrodes and Parasitic Element for Wireless Body Area Network

This study explores the development of a wearable antenna designed for use within a wireless body area network (WBAN), based on the IEEE 802.15.6 WBAN standard. We present a novel, dual‐use antenna designed to operate on the narrow band physical layer at 2.4 GHz, Wi‐Fi at 5.6 GHz, as well as human body communication. Furthermore, we evaluate the performance of the proposed antenna using electromagnetic field simulation, incorporating a multilayered arm model to consider human impact. Our findings suggest its effectiveness for WBAN applications, as indicated by reflection coefficients, radiation efficiencies, and radiation patterns. © 2023 Institute of Electrical Engineer of Japan and Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Durability study of e-textile electrodes for human body communication

The purpose of this study was to investigate the durability of e-textile electrodes for use in human body communication. Two types of e-textile electrodes were fabricated: a woven copper nickel-plated cotton and a knit jersey consisting of 63% cotton, 35% silver yarn, and 2% spandex. The signal transmission and surface resistivity of each type of electrode were initially measured as a control group. Subsequently, sets of each electrode were exposed to various durability tests in accordance with standards established by the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists and the American Society for Testing and Materials. The results of these tests were used to evaluate the durability of the electrodes, and the effects of the durability tests on the surface resistivity and signal transmission characteristics were analyzed and discussed.

Interfacing of Molecular Communication System With Various Communication Systems Over Internet of Every Nano Things

The communication system for health-monitoring applications is a substantial research area considering its practical limitations. One of the potential suggested technologies is internet-of-every-nano-thing (IoENT). Through this work, we demonstrate the different aspects of interfacing of molecular communication (MC) with other nano-communication systems such as human body communication (HBC), acoustic communication (AC), and tera-Hertz (Thz) communication systems for IoENT. Moreover, we also emphasized eclectic possibilities and various issues related to the applications of IoENT. First, we explored each of the nano-communication systems in detail by showing their mathematical frameworks. Subsequently, we are also concerned about different ways to interface MC with other nano-communication systems, one-by-one. In the end, we also discuss various likely challenges and possible future directions, e.g., availability of devices, mobility of devices and synchronization, etc in the context of interfacing of diverse technologies.

Signal transmission analysis in implantable human body communication for abdominal medical devices

Implantable medical devices, such as neurostimulators, need to be wirelessly controlled from outside the body. Many of these devices use high-frequency signals in the 400 MHz, 900 MHz, and 2.45 GHz bands to communicate with external devices. However, high-frequency bands can suffer from signal attenuation in biological tissues and from electromagnetic interference with surrounding devices. In contrast, human body communication (HBC) uses relatively low frequencies in the 3–30 MHz band, which can alleviate signal attenuation and prevent emissions outside the body during communication. In this study, we investigated the use of HBC for implantable medical devices in the abdomen using electromagnetic field simulations. The results showed that the transmission between the transmitter inside the body and the receiver outside the body was adequate for stable communication. However, when the receiver was detached from the skin surface, the transmission characteristics rapidly decreased. Moreover, when the receiver and skin were separated by 1 mm, the transmission degraded by 34 dB, indicating that electromagnetic interference between the implanted transmitter and surrounding devices (including other medical devices) is rare. Finally, we evaluated the proposed system from the perspective of medical electromagnetic compatibility and human safety. The simulation results demonstrated that the radiated emissions and human exposure of the HBC system meet international standards.

Somatic education approaches in piano studies: A snapshot of Spanish conservatoire practices

Somatic education in professional instrumental teaching is an emerging field in Spanish conservatoire culture. Although we find that the Alexander Technique was included in some European institutions since the middle of the XXth Century, this was not the case in the Spanish context. By means of a qualitative study, through document analysis and fifteen in-depth interviews with somatic teachers, the statutory frameworks of professional Piano studies and teaching plans related to somatic education in Spanish conservatoires, the principles that support them and the current practices that are undertaken in professional piano studies were analyzed. We found that there are eclectic approaches and practices in correlation with the background of the teachers in charge of the courses. Four main orientations can be described: somatic education per se; ergonomics and postural technique; body communication, training and technique; and mental and concentration control techniques. Further research to explore the interrelationships between somatic approaches and instrumental teaching would greatly benefit the field.

A Performance-Enhanced Antenna for Microwave Biomedical Applications by Using Metasurfaces

In this article, we introduce a novel antenna employing specifically designed metasurfaces to improve the radiating performance in close proximity to the human body, as required in microwave biomedical applications. We first present design guidelines to realize a thin metasurface acting as an impedance matching layer between the radiating element and the biological tissue, based on the transmission line equivalent model. Additionally, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, we combine an artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) as the backing element of the antenna, to improve the gain and reduce the undesired back radiation. To validate the proposed approach, we conceived a numerical test-case consisting of a bow-tie antenna operating close to a biological phantom at 2.56 GHz. Numerical simulations demonstrated the performance enhancement in terms of higher field penetration within tissues and better radiating behavior when the bow-tie antenna is working in the presence of both the metasurfaces. Furthermore, measurements carried out over fabricated prototypes confirmed the numerical results, validating the overall design procedure. The herein presented methodology can be helpful in several applications when the radiating elements operate in close proximity to biological tissues, as in medical imaging, on- body communication, mobile phones, and consumer devices.

Bioelectronic Sensor Nodes for the Internet of Bodies.

Energy-efficient sensing with physically secure communication for biosensors on, around, and within the human body is a major area of research for the development of low-cost health care devices, enabling continuous monitoring and/or secure perpetual operation. When used as a network of nodes, these devices form the Internet of Bodies, which poses challenges including stringent resource constraints, simultaneous sensing and communication, and security vulnerabilities. Another major challenge is to find an efficient on-body energy-harvesting method to support the sensing, communication, and security submodules. Due to limitations in the amount of energy harvested, we require a reduction in energy consumed per unit information, making the use of in-sensor analytics and processing imperative. In this article, we review the challenges and opportunities of low-power sensing, processing, and communication with possible powering modalities for future biosensor nodes. Specifically, we analyze, compare, and contrast (a) different sensing mechanisms such as voltage/current domain versus time domain, (b) low-power, secure communication modalities including wireless techniques and human body communication, and (c) different powering techniques for wearable devices and implants.

Mathematical Channel Modeling of Electromagnetic Waves in Biological Tissues for Wireless Body Communication

In the wireless body area network (WBAN), radio propagations from devices that communicate with the human body are very complex and distinctive compared to other environments. As we know, the human body is a lossy channel that significantly attenuates the propagation of electromagnetic waves (EMW). Therefore, channel models are critical in evaluating the communication link. One of the most predominant models is the path loss channel model, which is used to cover a wide range of communication channels and frequency bands in WBAN. This paper investigates the EMW in a human model irradiated by an incident electromagnetic plane wave. A planar multilayer structure is used for modeling human tissue. Moreover, the steady-state electromagnetic distribution is calculated by solving the differential and integral equations (DIE) by using the method of moments (MoM). The obtained results demonstrate the great use of performing a theoretical analysis for path loss (PL) and power loss density (PLD) estimation. The magnitude of the electric field inside muscle tissue at various depths, and with the most important frequencies in medical applications, is evaluated. This investigation provides evidence that the penetration of EMW in biological tissue strongly depends on the frequency and thickness of the tissue involved. Thus, for different examined conditions, an excellent agreement between recent results that were obtained by an analytical method, finite element (FEM), and the proposed MoM method is verified to be valid in this investigation, and it is found that the distribution of the field, PL, and PLD for different communication scenarios is very promising to determine the quality of communication for WBAN technology.

Defected Ground Structure Multiple Input-Output Antenna For Wireless Applications

In this paper, the investigation of a novel compact 2 × 2, 2 × 1, and 1 × 1 Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) based Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) antenna with Defected Ground Structure (DGS) is employed. The proposed Electromagnetic Radiation Structures (ERS) is composed of multiple radiating elements. These MIMO antennas are designed and analyzed with and without DGS. The feeding is introduced by a microstrip-fed line to significantly moderate the radiating structure’s overall size, which is 60 × 40 × 1 mm. The high directivity and divergence characteristics are attained by introducing the microstrip-fed lines perpendicular to each other. And the projected MIMO antenna structures are compared with others by using parameters like Return Loss (RL), Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), Radiation Pattern (RP), radiation efficiency, and directivity. The same MIMO set-up is redesigned with DGS, and the resultant parameters are compared. Finally, the Multiple Input and Multiple Output Radiating Structures with and without DGS are compared for result considerations like RL, VSWR, RP, radiation efficiency, and directivity. This projected antenna displays an omnidirectional RP with moderate gain, which is highly recommended for human healthcare applications. By introducing the defected ground structure in bottom layer the lower cut-off frequencies of 2.3, 4.5 and 6.0 GHz are achieved with few biological effects on radio propagation in human body communications. The proposed design covers numerous well-known wireless standards, along with dual-function DGS slots, and it can be easily integrated into Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN) in medical applications. This WBAN links the autonomous nodes that may be situated either in the clothes, on-body or beneath the skin of a person. This system typically advances the complete human body and the inter-connected nodes through a wireless communication channel.

Vulnerability to chronic stress and the phenotypic heterogeneity of presbycusis with subjective tinnitus.

Age-related functional reserve decline and vulnerability of multiple physiological systems and organs, as well as at the cellular and molecular levels, result in different frailty phenotypes, such as physical, cognitive, and psychosocial frailty, and multiple comorbidities, including age-related hearing loss (ARHL) and/or tinnitus due to the decline in auditory reserve. However, the contributions of chronic non-audiogenic cumulative exposure, and chronic audiogenic stress to phenotypic heterogeneity of presbycusis and/or tinnitus remain elusive. Because of the cumulative environmental stressors throughout life, allostasis systems, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the sympathetic adrenal-medullary (SAM) axes become dysregulated and less able to maintain homeostasis, which leads to allostatic load and maladaptation. Brain-body communication via the neuroendocrine system promotes systemic chronic inflammation, overmobilization of energetic substances (glucose and lipids), and neuroplastic changes via the non-genomic and genomic actions of glucocorticoids, catecholamines, and their receptors. These systemic maladaptive alterations might lead to different frailty phenotypes and physical, cognitive, and psychological comorbidities, which, in turn, cause and exacerbate ARHL and/or tinnitus with phenotypic heterogeneity. Chronic audiogenic stressors, including aging accompanying ontological diseases, cumulative noise exposure, and ototoxic drugs as well as tinnitus, activate the HPA axis and SAM directly and indirectly by the amygdala, promoting allostatic load and maladaptive neuroplasticity in the auditory system and other vulnerable brain regions, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). In the auditory system, peripheral deafferentation, central disinhibition, and tonotopic map reorganization may trigger tinnitus. Cross-modal maladaptive neuroplasticity between the auditory and other sensory systems is involved in tinnitus modulation. Persistent dendritic growth and formation, reduction in GABAergic inhibitory synaptic inputs induced by chronic audiogenic stresses in the amygdala, and increased dendritic atrophy in the hippocampus and mPFC, might involve the enhancement of attentional processing and long-term memory storage of chronic subjective tinnitus, accompanied by cognitive impairments and emotional comorbidities. Therefore, presbycusis and tinnitus are multisystem disorders with phenotypic heterogeneity. Stressors play a critical role in the phenotypic heterogeneity of presbycusis. Differential diagnosis based on biomarkers of metabonomics study, and interventions tailored to different ARHL phenotypes and/or tinnitus will contribute to healthy aging and improvement in the quality of life.