Bodily Information Research Articles

Why do you fear the bogeyman? An embodied predictive coding model of perceptual inference

Why are we scared by nonperceptual entities such as the bogeyman, and why does the bogeyman only visit us during the night? Why does hearing a window squeaking in the night suggest to us the unlikely idea of a thief or a killer? And why is this more likely to happen after watching a horror movie? To answer these and similar questions, we need to put mind and body together again and consider the embodied nature of perceptual and cognitive inference. Predictive coding provides a general framework for perceptual inference; I propose to extend it by including interoceptive and bodily information. The resulting embodied predictive coding inference permits one to compare alternative hypotheses (e.g., is the sound I hear generated by a thief or the wind?) using the same inferential scheme as in predictive coding, but using both sensory and interoceptive information as evidence, rather than just considering sensory events. If you hear a window squeaking in the night after watching a horror movie, you may consider plausible a very unlikely hypothesis (e.g., a thief, or even the bogeyman) because it explains both what you sense (e.g., the window squeaking in the night) and how you feel (e.g., your high heart rate). The good news is that the inference that I propose is fully rational and gives minds and bodies equal dignity. The bad news is that it also gives an embodiment to the bogeyman, and a reason to fear it.

American DNA

As genotyping technologies have precipitously decreased in cost since the completion of the Human Genome Project, personal genetic testing has increasingly been marketed to consumers. Genetic testing is now available for an ever-expanding list of genetic mutations associated with diseases—including breast cancer, Parkinson’s, and Alzheimer’s—as well as traits such as ancestry, intelligence, and athleticism. Close examination of the direct-to-consumer personal genomic industry reveals several forms of potentiality at work that are informed by imagined and real power over bodily information. The marketing and consumption of personal genetic information relies on constructions of biological potential that result from struggles over the ability to control and act on individualized genetic information and to translate it into meaning. This paper explores the emerging discourse over personal genetic testing—and the marketing and consumption of the alluring and carefully tailored idea of potentiality that fuels American entrepreneurialism—and concepts of freedom and self-actualization. Policy debates over rights of access to genotyping fail to recognize the shifting landscape of human genomics in the United States. Genes in the marketplace are justified by liberalism, civic republicanism, and multiculturalism propelling a paradigm shift away from traditional models of governance toward open access to genetic testing and minimization of individual harm. The turn to the market emboldens the consumer and creates a new set of social meanings and ethical quandaries over who may harness the potential attributed to genetic information and for what purposes.

Neurophysiology of gait: From the spinal cord to the frontal lobe

Locomotion is a purposeful, goal-directed behavior initiated by signals arising from either volitional processing in the cerebral cortex or emotional processing in the limbic system. Regardless of whether the locomotion initiation is volitional or emotional, locomotion is accompanied by automatic controlled movement processes, such as the adjustment of postural muscle tone and rhythmic limb movements. Sensori-motor integration in the brainstem and the spinal cord plays crucial roles in this process. The basic locomotor motor pattern is generated by spinal interneuronal networks, termed central pattern generators (CPGs). Responding to signals in proprioceptive and skin afferents, the spinal interneuronal networks modify the locomotor pattern in cooperation with descending signals from the brainstem structures and the cerebral cortex. Information processing between the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, and the brainstem may enable automatic regulation of muscle tone and rhythmic limb movements in the absence of conscious awareness. However, when a locomoting subject encounters obstacles, the subject has to intentionally adjust bodily alignment to guide limb movements. Such an intentional gait modification requires motor programming in the premotor cortices. The motor programs utilize one's bodily information, such as the body schema, which is preserved and updated in the temporoparietal cortex. The motor programs are transmitted to the brainstem by the corticoreticulospinal system, so that one's posture is anticipatorily controlled. These processes enable the corticospinal system to generate limb trajectory and achieve accurate foot placement. Loops from the motor cortical areas to the basal ganglia and the cerebellum can serve this purpose.

Imagined own-body transformations during passive self-motion

Spatial perspective taking is a crucial social skill that underlies many of our everyday interactions. Previous studies have suggested that spatial perspective taking is an embodied process that involves the integration of both motor and proprioceptive information. Given the importance of vestibular signals for own-body perception, mental own-body imagery, and bodily self-consciousness, in the present study we hypothesized that vestibular stimulation due to passive own-body displacements should also modulate spatial perspective taking. Participants performed an own-body transformation task while being passively rotated in a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction on a human motion platform. A congruency effect was observed, reflected in faster reaction times if the implied mental body rotation direction matched the actual rotation direction of the chair. These findings indicate that vestibular stimulation modulates and facilitates mental perspective taking, thereby highlighting the importance of integrating multisensory bodily information for spatial perspective taking.

Neurophysiological Studies May Provide a Misleading Picture of How Perceptual-Motor Interactions are Coordinated

Neurophysiological measurement techniques like fMRI and TMS are increasingly being used to examine the perceptual-motor processes underpinning the ability to anticipate the actions of others. Crucially, these techniques invariably restrict the experimental task that can be used and consequently limit the degree to which the findings can be generalised. These limitations are discussed based on a recent paper by Tomeo et al. (2012) who sought to examine responses to fooling actions by using TMS on participants who passively observed spliced video clips where bodily information was, and was not, linked to the action outcome. We outline two particular concerns with this approach. First, spliced video clips that show physically impossible actions are unlikely to simulate a “fooling” action. Second, it is difficult to make meaningful inferences about perceptual-motor expertise from experiments where participants cannot move. Taken together, we argue that wider generalisations based on these findings may provide a misunderstanding of the phenomenon such a study is designed to explore.

Disembodiment: Abstract construal attenuates the influence of contextual bodily state in judgment.

Can the mind be divorced from the body? As evidenced by a host of findings in the traditions of grounded cognition and embodiment, sensorimotor experience can exert a powerful influence on what and how people think. The current investigation explores the conditions that temper or enable this influence, proposing that level of mental construal may moderate the role of temporary physical state in judgment. Insofar as the sensorimotor information responsible for grounding cognition constitutes an incidental and thus low-level feature of a situation, it should exert less influence from an abstract or high-level (vs. concrete) frame of mind. Two studies provide support for this prediction: Contextual bodily information affected visual length estimates (Study 1) and importance ratings (Study 2) for people led to think concretely but not for those thinking abstractly. These results suggest that high-level thought allows for consistency by buffering against the effects of transitory situational factors.

Dynamique des coordinations sensorimotrices interpersonnelles chez les patients schizophrènes : introduction d’un nouveau paradigme

Compared to healthy individuals, schizophrenic patients suffer from sensorimotor disorders including problems when tracking moving targets and perceiving biological motion. Recent advances in embodied cognition and social coordination dynamics have emphasized the important role played by bodily information exchange (e.g. facial expressions, posture, and movements) in the way people interact with and mutually influence each other. These experimental studies on healthy participants provide data on sensorimotor performances of a patient that are recorded at high temporal and spatial resolutions. They should therefore be considered in studies on schizophrenic patients. These functional, quantitive and dynamic aspects of sensorimotor coordination abilities, may offer promising perspectives and could lead to a better understanding of sensorimotor disorders in schizophrenia. The purpose of this article is to introduce a new experimental paradigm in schizophrenia inspired by the field of coordination dynamics, a theoretical and experimental approach born more than 30 years ago that has recently expanded to interpersonal interactions, the so-called social coordination dynamics. In our study, we hypothesize that the sensorimotor deficits associated with schizophrenia in social interaction may be, at least partially, due to a failure to properly pick up information about the movements of other people. We therefore designed a study where healthy individuals and schizophrenic patients were asked to intentionally track the oscillations of visual targets of various social relevance using hand movements. Four different rhythmic visual stimuli varying in degree of biological relevance (form and motion) are used: [1] an oscillating dot; [2] a computer generated hand moving up and down continuously driven by a sine function; [3] pre-recorded oscillatory movements of a real hand; and [4] the hand of a real individual (behind a curtain that occluded vision of the rest of the body). Two distinct dependent variables are computed to quantify the coordination between the movements of the participants and the visual stimuli: the relative phase and the power spectrum overlap between their own movements. In this preliminary study, analyses of kinematic data revealed that schizophrenic patients had trouble synchronizing to (the more) "biological" target unlike control healthy individuals. These results suggest that patients with schizophrenia may suffer from sensorimotor coordination disabilities with socially relevant visual stimuli. The novel paradigm we introduce in research on schizophrenia should allow for a better understanding of the troubles these patients encounter when interacting with other people thanks to an approach rooted and building on social coordination dynamics as well as motor and social cognition.

Commodification and Privacy: A Lockean Perspective

This paper defends the thesis that privacy as a right is derived from fundamental rights to life, liberty, and property and does not permit restricting the commodification of bodily material; however, privacy as life, liberty, property does require conventions that ensure a robust and just market in bodily material. The analysis proceeds by defending a general commitment to liberty and markets, but not in the manner one might expect from a 'doctrinaire' libertarian. Ethical concerns about commodification are legitimate in the context of new medical and information technologies, but these concerns are not sufficiently well defined to justify political conclusions, since not every ethical concern is in itself a political concern, and the best way to resolve certain ethical difficulties is to draw up political boundaries that facilitate the discovery and testing of various solutions to our ethical puzzles. To illustrate the point, I will indicate how privacy as life, liberty, property defines such a dynamic solution to the problems of commodification of human bodily material and slippery information in insurance markets.

The spatial foundations of the conceptual system

AbstractThis article proposes that the representation of concepts in infancy is in the form of spatial image-schemas. A mechanism that simplifies spatial information is described along with a small set of spatial primitives that are sufficient to account for the conceptualizations that preverbal infants use to interpret objects and events. This early system is important to understand because it organizes the adult conceptual system of objects and events and remains its core. With development, the system becomes enriched by language in several ways, and also by means of analogical extension to non-spatial information. Nonspatial bodily information, such as feelings of force and motor activity, is also added, but remains secondary. It becomes associated with spatial representations, but except for its spatial aspects is represented in a more inchoate and less accessible fashion.

In Touch With Your Feelings: Power Increases Reliance on Bodily Information

Bodily feelings guide behavior. The present research examines how power affects reliance on nourishment-associated feelings. In Study 1 participants were primed with power or powerlessness and took part in a taste study. Hunger predicted the amount of food eaten by powerful but not by powerless participants. In Study 2 participants were assigned to a powerful or a powerless role and ate appetizing (chocolates) or non-appetizing (radishes) food. Powerful participants ate more appetizing food and less non-appetizing food, when compared to powerless participants. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that power increases reliance on experiential information.

Embodied economics: how bodily information shapes the social coordination dynamics of decision-making

To date, experiments in economics are restricted to situations in which individuals are not influenced by the physical presence of other people. In such contexts, interactions remain at an abstract level, agents guessing what another person is thinking or is about to decide based on money exchange. Physical presence and bodily signals are therefore left out of the picture. However, in real life, social interactions (involving economic decisions or not) are not solely determined by a person's inference about someone else's state-of-mind. In this essay, we argue for embodied economics: an approach to neuroeconomics that takes into account how information provided by the entire body and its coordination dynamics influences the way we make economic decisions. Considering the role of embodiment in economics--movements, posture, sensitivity to mimicry and every kind of information the body conveys--makes sense. This is what we claim in this essay which, to some extent, constitutes a plea to consider bodily interactions between agents in social (neuro)economics.

Does vivid emotional imagery depend on body signals?

The recall and re-experiencing of a personal emotional event (emotional imagery) are thought to evoke neural activity in the central nervous system that can affect the physiology of bodily states. It has been proposed that the more active the neural systems previously engaged in the emotional experience, and the more active the bodily state associated with that experience, the more vivid the emotional imagery is. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the gastrointestinal system (GI) are engaged in emotional reactions. On this basis, we hypothesized that vivid emotional imagery would be accompanied by strong increases in gastrointestinal and sympathetic nervous system activity. To test this hypothesis, 17 healthy participants performed emotional imagery of strong autobiographical memories involving various emotional states (happy, fear, disgust, sadness, anger). SNS and GI changes, measured by skin conductance and electrogastrogram, respectively, correlated positively with subjective ratings of arousal during the imagery. However, the SNS changes did not correlate with ratings of emotional imagery vividness, and even more intriguingly, the GI changes correlated strongly and negatively with vividness ratings. To account for these findings, we propose that in highly vivid imagery experience, the central nervous system is simulating the whole emotional experience strongly, and bodily information plays a lesser role. In low vivid imagery experience, the central nervous system is not simulating very strongly the emotional experience, and information coming from the body (including the GI system) plays a greater role. This interpretation is set forth in the context of Damasio's [Damasio, A., (1999) The feeling of what happens: body and emotion in the making of consciousness, Orlando, Fl, Harcourt.] theoretical framework, which predicts such a dissociation between a “body loop” and an “as if body loop” for the experiencing and re-experiencing of emotions and feelings.

Infant Concepts Revisited

In this paper I answer some concerns of the commentators on my article ‘On the birth and growth of concepts’. I explain that my theory of concept formation in infancy emphasizes spatial information over bodily information but still allows the body to influence conceptual thought. I suggest that bodily feelings may be represented differently from spatial information. I do not claim that spatial image-schemas account for all conceptual thought, but I show why they are sufficient for the relatively limited conceptual life of preverbal infants, making an innate propositional language of thought unnecessary. Finally, I discuss why uninterpreted percepts cannot be concepts, and clarify the mechanism of Perceptual Meaning Analysis.

Body ownership and embodiment: Vestibular and multisensory mechanisms

Body ownership and embodiment are two fundamental mechanisms of self-consciousness. The present article reviews neurological data about paroxysmal illusions during which body ownership and embodiment are affected differentially: autoscopic phenomena (out-of-body experience, heautoscopy, autoscopic hallucination, feeling-of-a-presence) and the room tilt illusion. We suggest that autoscopic phenomena and room tilt illusion are related to different types of failures to integrate body-related information (vestibular, proprioceptive and tactile cues) in addition to a mismatch between vestibular and visual references. In these patients, altered body ownership and embodiment has been shown to occur due to pathological activity at the temporoparietal junction and other vestibular-related areas arguing for a key importance of vestibular processing. We also review the possibilities of manipulating body ownership and embodiment in healthy subjects through exposition to weightlessness as well as caloric and galvanic stimulation of the peripheral vestibular apparatus. In healthy subjects, disturbed self-processing might be related to interference of vestibular stimulation with vestibular cortex leading to disintegration of bodily information and altered body ownership and embodiment. We finally propose a differential contribution of the vestibular cortical areas to the different forms of altered body ownership and embodiment.

Video Ergo Sum: Manipulating Bodily Self-Consciousness

Humans normally experience the conscious self as localized within their bodily borders. This spatial unity may break down in certain neurological conditions such as out-of-body experiences, leading to a striking disturbance of bodily self-consciousness. On the basis of these clinical data, we designed an experiment that uses conflicting visual-somatosensory input in virtual reality to disrupt the spatial unity between the self and the body. We found that during multisensory conflict, participants felt as if a virtual body seen in front of them was their own body and mislocalized themselves toward the virtual body, to a position outside their bodily borders. Our results indicate that spatial unity and bodily self-consciousness can be studied experimentally and are based on multisensory and cognitive processing of bodily information.

Biobanks and Legislation in Switzerland – a data protection perspective

AbstractThe combination of health and lifestyle data with bodily substances and genetic information has led over the last few years to the creation of so-called biobanks. These biobanks are used to research a large number of diseases of modern civilization and their genetic interactions. One of the best-known projects in this respect is without a doubt the Icelandic biobank, operated since 1998 by a private pharmaceutical company, deCode Genetics, and set up with government support. The database contains family histories and medical records, as well as biological samples taken from a large section of Iceland's homogeneous population. The hope is that this data will allow a correlation to be established between genetic predispositions and the onset of widespread diseases. Other examples of population-based biobanks include the Estonian Genome Project, launched in 2001 by the Estonian Government, as well as the UK Biobank in the UK and PopGen in the state of Schleswig-Holstein in Germany.

Commercialisation of Human Bodily Substances and Human Genetic Information within the Area of Bio- and Tissue-Banks with special Emphasis to Estonia, Iceland, the UK and Germany

AbstractTechnological advances in the past few decades have enabled researchers and physicians to celebrate wondrous medical breakthroughs. Many of these evolutionary progressions are achieved by utilising human body parts and tissues in research. The sequencing of the human genome has provided the international research community with a wealth of new information to use in further researching the role of genetic susceptibility in complex diseases. However, maximizing the utilization of this information to benefit public health globally necessitates population based knowledge regarding the frequency of susceptibility alleles, disease penetrance estimates, and the role of the gene interaction. To fulfil these goals, large regional populations are being recruited in many locations for the development of genetic databases usually called bio banks or genetic banks. The ”bio” in bio bank is derived from living, biological entities: people, animals, plants, bacteria. In the realm of bio banking, people are the source of the raw material for the discovery of genes for research, diagnosis, and therapy, raising a host of issues about rights and responsibilities, fiduciary and societal obligations.

Proprioceptive event related potentials: gating and task effects

Objective The integration of proprioception with vision, touch or audition is considered basic to the developmental formation of perceptions, conceptual objects and the creation of cognitive schemes. Thus, mapping of proprioceptive information processing is important in cognitive research. A stimulus of a brisk change of weight on a hand held load elicit a proprioceptive evoked potential (PEP). Here this is used to examine early and late information processing related to weight discrimination by event related potentials (ERP). Methods A gating paradigm having 1 s between the proprioceptive stimuli of 100 g weight increase was recorded in 12 runs of 40 pairs and an 1:4 oddball task of discriminating between 40 and 100 g weight increase was both recorded in 24 healthy men. The subjects were stratified in 3 groups according to their discrimination errors. Results The proprioceptive event related potential (PERP) consisted of a contralateral parietal P60, frontal N70, midline P100, initial contralateral later widespread N160, vertex P200, parietal N290 and target related widespread P360 and posterior N500. The target related components were augmented in the best performers, while the bad performers had delayed P60 and attenuated N70. The amplitudes of N160, P200 and N290 were unrelated to performance. Gating was seen as attenuation of P100, N160 and P200 amplitude. Conclusions The proprioceptive stimulus feature processing seem to be accomplished in the first 100 ms, while later components are modified by context as expected from previous findings in the somatosensory modality. Significance The PERP could be a useful research tool in the investigation of bodily information processing in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Effects of heart rate information on anxiety, perspective taking, and performance in high and low social-evaluative anxiety

In a cognitive model, Clark and Wells (1995) proposed that individuals with social phobia use bodily information to construct a distorted impression of their observable selves. In this study, we conducted a preliminary test of this hypothesis by manipulating the provision of heart rate information in four groups of participants scoring high or low on social-evaluative anxiety (SEA), and examined the effects of this manipulation on anxiety, perspective taking, and social performance. Comparisons were made between two high SEA and two low SEA groups who received information suggesting their heart rate had increased, or no information, prior to a threatening social interaction task. The results showed that high SEA individuals receiving information concerning an increase in heart rate reported significantly greater anxiety, negative social performance, and greater proportion of observer perspectives than high SEA individuals receiving no such information. This bodily information, however, did not affect participants' heart rates. The results provide support for Clark and Wells's model.

Social phobic interoception: effects of bodily information on anxiety, beliefs and self-processing

It has been suggested that body-state information influences self-perception and negative thinking in social phobia [Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. G. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: diagnosis, assessment and treatment (pp. 69–93). New York: Guilford Press.]. This study explored the effects of body-state information on anxiety and cognition in patients with generalised social phobia during a feared social interaction. It was hypothesised that information concerning an increase in pulse rate would lead to increments in anxiety, negative beliefs and self-processing whilst information concerning a decrease in pulse rate would have the opposite effect. The results of this study were generally consistent with the hypotheses. These findings are important as they may help to account for fluctuations in anxiety, negative beliefs and self-processing in social situations that do not present objective social threat. In particular, social anxiety appears to be modulated by body-state information. The implications of the present findings for cognitive therapy of social phobia are briefly discussed.