Lycaenidae Research Articles

Range expansion in Western Pygmy Blue butterfly Brephidium exilis (Boisduval), with records from the Red Sea coast and north-west Saudi Arabia (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

The Western Pygmy Blue Brephidium exilis (Boisduval), a North American butterfly that began its overseas expansion in Arabia more than thirty years ago, was recently observed for the first time at two sites in the western part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: (i) a wintertime record of a few individuals in near-freezing temperatures at a peri-agricultural site outside the northwestern desert city of Tabuk, and (ii) a large population among extensive urban landscaping along the central Red Sea coast north of Jeddah, similar to sites where it flourishes in eastern Arabia. These observations (a) fill a large observational gap in the expanding range of this non-native species in the Middle East, South-west Asia and even North Africa; (b) demonstrate the breadth of its ecological tolerance; and (c) indicate its potential for continued dispersal, including the possibility that it may already be established at other urban sites in the growing cities in the west of the Kingdom.

The Brenton Blue butterfly – A conservation odyssey

The Brenton Blue butterfly became nationally famous in the 1990s when the Lepidopterists' Society of Africa (LSA) launched a campaign to prevent its imminent extinction, because of the development of a luxury housing estate at Brenton-on-Sea on the southern coast of South Africa. This campaign gained support from national and international NGOs as well as the South African public and pressure mounted on the National Government to intervene. Eventually the Brenton Blue Butterfly Reserve (BBBR) was established to protect the butterfly in 1997, with the status of a “special nature reserve”. An intensive research project was conducted from 2000–2005, which uncovered the butterfly's unusual ecological requirements, including the caterpillar's habit of feeding on the rootstock of its host plant Indigofera erecta under the protection of Camponotus baynei ants. The vegetation composition and dynamics, the biology of the host plant, the ant community and the population dynamics of the butterfly were also outcomes of this research. This facilitated the development of a reserve management programme, which for over 20 years seemed to ensure the butterfly's survival. Fire exclusion was practiced because of the risk to the host ants, which nest in dead wood on the surface. Despite these precautions, during the unprecedented Knysna fire in June 2017 the entire butterfly reserve was burnt, and even though some butterflies emerged in November 2017, these were the last ones seen at the BBBR.

The higher abundance of host plant and suitable management recommended as the important elements in the conservation of Phengaris (Maculinea) teleius (Bergsträser, 1779) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in the Hradné lúky SAC meadows (Slovakia)

This article presents a study of the isolated population of the scarce large blue butterfly, which is facing a significant threat in the meadows of the central part of Slovakia. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of management, the presence of great burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis (L.)), and the host ants on the abundance of Phengaris teleius in the Hradné lúky Special Area of Conservation (SAC) in Slovakia. The study area was divided into six study plots. The abundance of S. officinalis host plant and ant communities, with emphasis on host ants (Myrmica scabrinodis (Nylander, 1846) and M. rubra (Linnaeus, 1758)), were analysed at each study plot. A generalized linear model (GLM) identified the significant relationships among three variables. Specifically, a relationship was confirmed between the number of P. teleius individuals and the abundance of the host plant S. officinalis, as well as between the number of P. teleius individuals and the current type of management at the specific biotope. The most important conservation recommendations regarding this study have been presented. Implications for insect conservation: Our results indicate that in the protection of P. teleius, it is important to support the abundance of S. officinalis as highly as possible. In addition, we confirm that targeted management with the absence of mowing in the critical phase of the year, especially in the Molinia meadows, is important for maintaining a healthy butterfly population.

Two lycaenid butterfly species (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) recorded as new for the fauna of Iraq.

Two lycaenid butterfly species (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) recorded as new for the fauna of Iraq.

A Little Blue Butterfly.

A Little Blue Butterfly.

Effects Of 2,4-D, BAP, and Sucrose Concentrations in The Callus Induction of White (Clitoria ternatea var. Albiflora) and Blue Butterfly Pea (Clitoria ternatea)

The blue butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) and white butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea var. Albiflora) belong to the Fabaceae family. Both are locally known as “bunga telang” and native to the Southeast Asian regions. The blue flowered variety is traditionally used to treat headaches, fever, and diabetes and is renowned scientifically for its memory-enhancing properties due to the presence of novel pentacyclic triterpenoids. However, farming of C. ternatea is challenged by inconsistent yields of novel secondary metabolites, especially under changing environmental conditions. Callus and cell suspension cultures, on the other hand, offer an alternative for the consistent production of these metabolites. The current study aims to optimize the treatments of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), and sucrose concentrations for friable callus formation from seedling explants. Sterile cotyledon explants of in vitro seedlings from both types of butterfly pea were subjected to half-strength MS medium supplemented with different concentrations and combinations of 2,4-D and BAP, with sucrose at 15 g/L and 30 g/L. The highest friable callus fresh weight from the white butterfly pea explants (0.064 ± 0.010 g) was achieved in treatments of 0.40 mg/L 2,4-D and 0.50 mg/L BAP. In contrast, the highest fresh weight of friable callus for the blue variety (0.025 ± 0.016 g) was induced in 0.25 mg/L of 2,4-D. Both varieties showed the highest friable callus weight in 15 g/L sucrose supplemented with 1.00 mg/L of 2,4-D (0.146 ± 0.032 g) and 0.25 mg/L of 2,4-D (0.245 ± 0.075 g) for the white and blue variety respectively. The morphology of calli for both varieties were yellowish, watery, and sticky. This study provides an essential basis the establishment of cell suspension cultures, as an efficient alternative to harness the secondary metabolites associated with the mammalian neuroprotective properties.

Whole genomes from the extinct Xerces Blue butterfly can help identify declining insect species

The Xerces Blue (Glaucopsyche xerces) is considered to be the first butterfly to become extinct in historical times. It was notable for its chalky lavender wings with conspicuous white spots on the ventral wings. The last individuals were collected in their restricted habitat, in the dunes near the Presidio military base in San Francisco, in 1941. We sequenced the genomes of four 80- to 100-year-old Xerces Blue, and seven historical and one modern specimens of its closest relative, the Silvery Blue (Glaucopsyche lygdamus). We compared these to a novel annotated genome of the Green-Underside Blue (Glaucopsyche alexis). Phylogenetic relationships inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes indicate that Xerces Blue was a distinct species that diverged from the Silvery Blue lineage at least 850,000 years ago. Using nuclear genomes, both species experienced population growth during the Eemian interglacial period, but the Xerces Blue decreased to a very low effective population size subsequently, a trend opposite to that observed in the Silvery Blue. Runs of homozygosity and deleterious load in the former were significantly greater than in the later, suggesting a higher incidence of inbreeding. These signals of population decline observed in Xerces Blue could be used to identify and monitor other insects threatened by human activities, whose extinction patterns are still not well known.

Whole genomes from the extinct Xerces Blue butterfly can help identify declining insect species.

The Xerces Blue (Glaucopsyche xerces) is considered to be the first butterfly to become extinct in historical times. It was notable for its chalky lavender wings with conspicuous white spots on the ventral wings. The last individuals were collected in their restricted habitat, in the dunes near the Presidio military base in San Francisco, in 1941. We sequenced the genomes of four 80- to 100-year-old Xerces Blue, and seven historical and one modern specimens of its closest relative, the Silvery Blue (Glaucopsyche lygdamus). We compared these to a novel annotated genome of the Green-Underside Blue (Glaucopsyche alexis). Phylogenetic relationships inferred from complete mitochondrial genomes indicate that Xerces Blue was a distinct species that diverged from the Silvery Blue lineage at least 850,000 years ago. Using nuclear genomes, both species experienced population growth during the Eemian interglacial period, but the Xerces Blue decreased to a very low effective population size subsequently, a trend opposite to that observed in the Silvery Blue. Runs of homozygosity and deleterious load in the former were significantly greater than in the later, suggesting a higher incidence of inbreeding. These signals of population decline observed in Xerces Blue could be used to identify and monitor other insects threatened by human activities, whose extinction patterns are still not well known.

Determining oviposition preferences to inform population reinforcement of the specialist chequered blue butterfly (Scolitantides orion)

Abstract Many Lepidoptera species are declining to the point that active measures such as reinforcements and reintroductions are necessary to maintain viable populations. To maximise success of such efforts, we need to understand the factors influencing habitat preferences for oviposition. In a Swedish island population of the red‐listed chequered blue butterfly (Scolitantides orion), we characterised oviposition preference by documenting whether the presence and abundance of eggs (i) increased with size and local density of its host plant, orpine (Hylotelephium telephium), and (ii) was associated with nectar plant abundance, degree of shading, and ground cover composition within small and large circular plots (1 m vs. 5 m radius) around focal plants. To reinforce a tiny population on a neighbouring island, we released 127 pupae and 46 imagos and recorded oviposition for two seasons. The probability of receiving eggs increased with focal host plant size, and also with mean size of other host plants and cover of lichens within the large plots. The abundance of eggs within large plots increased with host plant density and amount of lichen cover. Habitat characteristics of the large plots predicted oviposition better than did those of small plots, and both outperformed models including host plant size only. In the reinforcement population, all released pupae eclosed, and we found a total of 507 eggs on 272 host plants during the release season. Eggs were present on 5% of examined host plants, and median distance to a release spot was 19.3 m. In the following year, we found 420 eggs on 209 plants, and median distance to a release spot increased to 35.7 m, indicating diffusion through the habitat. Practical implication. The chequered blue butterfly prefers to oviposit on large host plants in patches with high host density and high cover of lichens. To identify suitable release habitats, environmental conditions should be considered in an area of ca 80 m2. The reinforcement shows that small releases can be successful and suggests that similar low‐effort approaches can be effective to boost local populations of many threatened butterflies, provided suitable habitats are available.

Enhanced performance of dye-sensitized solar cells via anthocyanin, chlorophyll, benzothiadiazole and diphenylacridine co-sensitizers and amine-based co-adsorbents

Anthocyanin (ANT) and chlorophyll (CHL) natural dyes extracted from blue butterfly pea flowers and spinach leaves and two synthetic metal-free dyes (BIM33 and C1) were evaluated as sensitizers/co-sensitizers in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). To suppress the possible dye aggregation, triethylamine (TEA) and diethylenetriamine (DETA) were utilized as alternative co-adsorbents to the commonly used chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA). Furthermore, CHL, BIM33, and C1 were co-sensitized with ANT to achieve panchromatic light absorption and, hence, enhance the photovoltaic performance. Therefore, the power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of DSSCs based on the dyes were significantly improved from 1.19–5.01 % to 2.39–6.31 % by the co-sensitization and utilization of co-adsorbents. Meanwhile, the efficiencies of DSSCs based on TEA or DETA were superior to those based on CDCA under the same conditions. This study provides effective strategies for improving the performance of DSSCs based on environment-friendly dyes.

Fecundity without nectar is insufficient for the persistence of a blue butterfly.

Organisms with complex life cycles undergo ecological transitions between life stages, often resulting in stage-specific resource use. The relative contribution of each stage-specific resource to vital rates influences population dynamics and subsequently whether habitats can support viable populations. In lepidopterans, survival to reproduction requires sufficient resources for immature life stages, but the extent to which resources for adults are critical to population persistence is variable. We studied Boisduval's blue butterflies (Icaricia icarioides), in a greenhouse experiment, to quantify the effect of the adult diet, nectar, on vital rates. Butterflies fed ad libitum produced 3.4 times more eggs, on average, over their lifetime and lived 6 more days relative to those which only had access to water. We used these experimental data to parameterize a population model to test if vital rates with and without nectar result in viable population growth rates. Despite individual females laying 68 eggs without nectar, we found that Boisduval's blue butterfly populations will not persist without the improved fecundity associated with nectar resources (λ<1). In this species, although amino acids in the adult diet contributed to various improvements in fecundity, these improvements did not translate to improvements in population growth rates. Incorporating our experimental vital rates into a population model indicates that the relative abundance and quality of nectar can alter at what threshold other resource(s) are limiting the population.

The genome sequence of the Large Blue butterfly, Phengaris (Maculinea) arion (Linnaeus, 1758)

We present a genome assembly from a female Phengaris arion (the Large Blue butterfly; Arthropoda; Insecta; Lepidoptera; Lycaenidae). The genome sequence is 544.50 megabases in length. Most of the assembly is scaffolded into 23 chromosomal pseudomolecules, including the Z sex chromosome. The mitochondrial genome has also been assembled and is 15.7 kilobases in length.

Range-wide population genomic structure of the Karner blue butterfly, Plebejus (Lycaeides) samuelis.

The Karner blue butterfly, Plebejus (Lycaeides) samuelis, is an endangered North American climate change-vulnerable species that has undergone substantial historical habitat loss and population decline. To better understand the species' genetic status and support Karner blue conservation, we sampled 116 individuals from 22 localities across the species' geographical range in Wisconsin (WI), Michigan (MI), Indiana (IN), and New York (NY). Using genomic analysis, we found that these samples were divided into three major geographic groups, NY, WI, and MI-IN, with populations in WI and MI-IN each further divided into three subgroups. A high level of inbreeding was revealed by inbreeding coefficients above 10% in almost all populations in our study. However, strong correlation between F ST and geographical distance suggested that genetic divergence between populations increases with distance, such that introducing individuals from more distant populations may be a useful strategy for increasing population-level diversity and preserving the species. We also found that Karner blue populations had lower genetic diversity than closely related species and had more alleles that were present only at low frequencies (<5%) in other species. Some of these alleles may negatively impact individual fitness and may have become prevalent in Karner blue populations due to inbreeding. Finally, analysis of these possibly deleterious alleles in the context of predicted three-dimensional structures of proteins revealed potential molecular mechanisms behind population declines, providing insights for conservation. This rich new range-wide understanding of the species' population genomic structure can contextualize past extirpations and help conserve and even enhance Karner blue genetic diversity.

Monitoring Insect Pest Complex on Black Gram

The pest spectra, comprising of thirteen species, were observed to attack black gram at different stages of crop growth. The stem fly Ophiomyia phaseoli (Tryon), whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), black aphid Aphis craccivora (Koch), pod bug Riptortus pedestris (F), surface grasshopper, Chrotogonus trachypterous (Blanchard), semilooper, Plusia orichalcea (F), tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (F), blue butterfly Lampides boeticus (L) and blister beetle Mylabris pustulata (Thunberg) have assumed the status of minor pests whereas, gram pod borer Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), spotted pod borer Maruca vitrata (Geyer), Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) and leafhopper Empoasca kerri (Pruthi) were recorded as major pests.

The last days of Aporia crataegi (L.) in Britain: Evaluating genomic erosion in an extirpated butterfly.

Current rates of habitat degradation and climate change are causing unprecedented declines in global biodiversity. Studies on vertebrates highlight how conservation genomics can be effective in identifying and managing threatened populations, but it is unclear how vertebrate-derived metrics of genomic erosion translate to invertebrates, with their markedly different population sizes and life histories. The Black-veined White butterfly (Aporia crataegi) was extirpated from Britain in the 1920s. Here, we sequenced historical DNA from 17 specimens collected between 1854 and 1924 to reconstruct demography and compare levels of genomic erosion between extirpated British and extant European mainland populations. We contrast these results using modern samples of the Common Blue butterfly (Polyommatus icarus); a species with relatively stable demographic trends in Great Britain. We provide evidence for bottlenecks in both these species around the period of post-glacial colonization of the British Isles. Our results reveal different demographic histories and Ne for both species, consistent with their fates in Britain, likely driven by differences in life history, ecology and genome size. Despite a difference, by an order of magnitude, in historical effective population sizes (Ne), reduction in genome-wide heterozygosity in A. crataegi was comparable to that in P. icarus. Symptomatic of A. crataegi's disappearance were marked increases in runs-of-homozygosity (RoH), potentially indicative of recent inbreeding, and accumulation of putatively mildly and weakly deleterious variants. Our results provide a rare glimpse of genomic erosion in a regionally extinct insect and support the potential use of genomic erosion metrics in identifying invertebrate populations or species in decline.

A rapid assessment methodology for quantifying and visualizing functional landscape connectivity.

The number of publications that evaluate or use landscape connectivity has grown dramatically in recent years. But the biological realism of common connectivity assessments remains limited. To address this shortcoming, I introduce a flexible methodology for evaluating functional landscape connectivity that can be quick to implement, biologically nuanced, and straightforward to interpret. I combined a US Fish and Wildlife Service land cover map with information from existing empirical studies to develop a movement simulator for the Fender's blue butterfly, an endangered species in Oregon, USA. I use the resulting butterfly model to explore the concepts and mechanics behind my novel connectivity assessment methodology. My methods are able to identify clusters of connected resource patches, quantify and visualize movement rates between patches, and identify opportunities for enhancing connectivity through restoration and mitigation. My results include an emergent dispersal kernel that captures the influence of movement behavior on connectivity. The methods I introduce are capable of generating detailed yet practical connectivity analyses that can incorporate considerable biological and behavioral realism. My approach is simple to implement, and the requisite data can be modest. The toolkit I developed has the potential to standardize connectivity assessments that use either real or simulated movement data.

Eversible tentacle organs in caterpillar–ant communication: do they signal partner quality in polyommatinae lycaenid butterflies?

AbstractIn mutualistic associations, lycaenid butterfly caterpillars trade nectar secretions against protective services by ants. Eversions of paired abdominal tentacle organs (TO) have been suggested to honestly signal nectar secretion capacity of caterpillars to their ant visitors. Using data from 1561 staged encounters between larvae of nine West Palaearctic Polyommatinae species and worker ants of three species, I show that within experimental series, significantly positive correlations between TO eversion and nectar secretion rate emerged only sporadically (12 of 50 series). In a meta-analysis integrating over all tested species combinations and experimental conditions, the relationship between nectar secretion and TO eversion rate was weak (r2 = 6.6%), though significantly positive. This association between myrmecophilous behaviours was not stronger in experiments with feeding mature larvae than in prepupal non-feeding larvae; however, the latter delivered distinctly more nectar. Relationships between nectar secretions and TO eversions were independent of the density of ant partners available and did not vary consistently between lycaenid species showing different levels of myrmecophily. When mean values of nectar secretions per experimental series were related to the respective mean TO eversion rates, a clear positive relationship only emerged among intimately ant-associated species. In moderate myrmecophiles average tentacle activity was unrelated to mean nectar delivery. Overall, these experiments yielded only weak support for the reliable-signalling hypothesis. I propose that TO eversions rather serve as complementary dimension of multimodal communication between partners. ‘Apparent honesty’ may then emerge if caterpillars achieve optimal ant attendance by concomitantly increasing nectar secretion and TO eversion rates.

Species distribution modelling of the purple leaf blue butterfly (Amblypodia anita) in West Bengal, India, under current environmental conditions

ABSTRACT Species distribution modelling is a technique used in ecology and conservation biology to predict the potential distribution of a species based on environmental variables. It involves analysing the relationship between known occurrences of a species and environmental factors to create a model that can then predict where the species might be found. Amblypodia anita is a species of butterfly belonging to the family Lycaenidae, found primarily in Southeast Asia. Information about the specific conservation status of Amblypodia anita varies based on regional assessments. However, like many butterfly species, threats such as habitat destruction, climate change, and habitat fragmentation pose risks to its populations. The study trained a model on the current distribution of Amblypodia anita in West Bengal, India, using MaxEnt modelling. Fourteen environmental variables were selected to build the model. Results suggest that cultivated and managed vegetation (36.5%) serves as the most important variable. Running the developed model, the team was then able to predict that 6619 km2 of suitable habitat for Amblypodia anita butterflies exists in West Bengal, India. This analytical approach to area-based conservation may be used in conservation management and focuses on protecting specific geographical areas to preserve biodiversity, ecosystems, and natural resources.

ECOLOGICAL AND FAUNAL REVIEW RHOPALOCERA IN THE TERRITORY OF THE SOUTH-EASTERN PART OF THE CRIMEA

The research results provided original data on the Rhopalocera species composition, ecological and biological features, and Rhopalocera population structure, of the south-eastern part of the peninsula, which live in some open biocenoses. The role of Rhopalocera representatives in the ecosystem is twofold: representatives of the family act as pests at some stages of development, and as beneficial pollinators of flowering plants at others, which affects the development of the ecosystem as a whole. In the studied territory of the southeastern part of Crimea, 36 species of Lepidoptera were found. The studied fauna of Rhopalocera included 5 species listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine. One species of the family Lycaenidae is listed in the Red Data Butterflies Book of Europe. Of the studied inpatients the most densely inhabited biotopes a juniper grove, meadows, and a steppe area turned out to be. By the number of species, the largest trophic group among the detected ones was the group of oligophagous. Four phenological groups were distinguished: spring-early summer, summer, late summer, and polyvoltine, of which the richest is the polyvoltine group. The peak of diversity and abundance of species occurred in the middle summer period when almost 90% of Rhopalocera species of the studied area were found.

Dynamic Color Regulation of the Lycaenid Butterfly Wing Scales

Butterfly coloration originates from the finely structured scales grown on the underlying wing cuticle. Most researchers who study butterfly scales are focused on the static optic properties of cover scales, with few works referring to dynamic optical properties of the scales. Here, the dynamic coloration effect of the multiple scales was studied based on the measurements of varying-angle reflection and the characterization of scale flexibility in two species of Lycaenid, Plebejus argyrognomon with violet wings and Polyommatus erotides with blue wings. We explored the angle-dependent color changeability and the color-mediating efficiency of wing scales. It was found that the three main kinds of flexible scales (cover, ground and androconia scales) were asynchronously bent during wing rotation, which caused the discoloration effect. The three layers of composite scales broaden the light signal when compared to the single scale, which may be of great significance to the recognition of insects. Specifically, the androconia scales were shown to strongly contribute to the overall wing coloration. The cover scale coloration was ascribed to the coherence scattering resulted from the short-range order at intermediate spatial frequencies from the 2D Fourier power spectra. Our findings are expected to deepen the understanding of the complex characteristics of biological coloration and to provide new inspirations for the fabrication of biomimetic flexible discoloration materials.