Blade Erosion Research Articles

Assessment of microplastics in the sediments around Hywind Scotland Offshore Wind Farm

Abstract Leading edge erosion of turbine blades is hypothesized to be a source of microplastic (MP; 1-5000 µm) emissions from offshore wind farms (OWFs) to the marine environment. Given the higher density of rotor blade coating and leading-edge protection (LEP) materials than seawater, released MP are expected to enter the surrounding waters and sink to the sediments, where the highest concentrations may be expected in the sediments in and around the OWF infrastructure. Here, we present a methodological approach for the quantification and characterisation of coating and LEP MPs (>300 µm) in sediments, applied to samples collected from 15 locations around the Hywind Scotland floating OWF. To validate the approach, reference materials were produced from the different coating layers and LEP material and used to generate library IR spectra and mass spectra so that such particles could be robustly identified if present in the sediment samples. The reference materials were also used to evaluate particle integrity and recovery across the sample preparation applied to real samples (ZnCl2 density separation, filtration). Results suggested the LEP material was unaffected by the sample processing, but fragmentation was observed for the two coating layers studied, leading to an increase in the number of particles and a decrease in weight due to loss of particles <300 µm. After isolation, particles were evaluated using microscopy and suspected MP particles were identified and subjected to a detailed chemical characterisation by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In the field samples, twenty particles were confirmed as MP, but none had polymer compositions matching the coatings and LEP materials, instead representing common thermoplastics in the form of flakes, films, fragments, and filaments.

Full-scale wind turbine performance assessment using the turbine performance integral (TPI) method: a study of aerodynamic degradation and operational influences

Abstract. This study investigates how blade aerodynamic modifications, including leading edge roughness (LER), influence wind turbine performance over their operational lifespan. It introduces a methodology developed to examine the intricate relationship between blade erosion, blade enhancements, operations and maintenance (O&M) events, control programmable logic controller (PLC) parameter updates, and their cumulative impact on turbine efficiency. Analysing data from 12 multi-megawatt offshore turbines over a 12-year period, the investigation hinges on the integration of supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) data, O&M records, and air density corrections. A key contribution is the development of the turbine performance integral (TPI) method, which, for the investigated turbines, leverages generator speed and power output data to track performance trajectories. Seasonal trend decomposition using locally estimated scatterplot smoothing (STL) further isolates long-term trends and seasonal variations in performance. Despite data availability and quality limitations, the study reveals significant findings concerning the impact of manufacturer software updates on turbine control strategies, resulting in improved performance; the variable effects of blade repairs and enhancements; and the complex interaction between O&M events and performance. This work applies a methodical approach and statistical rigour, offering a path forward for effectively monitoring wind turbine efficiency and advancing renewable energy.

Effect of the water erosion on the non-equilibrium condensation in steam turbine cascade

In the final stage of steam turbines, droplets formed by non-equilibrium condensation continuously impact and erode the blades, leading to changes in surface roughness and leading edge erosion. This study investigates the effects of roughness changes and leading edge erosion, induced by water erosion, on non-equilibrium condensation in steam turbine cascades using numerical simulation methods. In a Moses-Stein nozzle, the mechanism of roughness influencing non-equilibrium condensation is analyzed. Subsequently, entropy generation theory is applied to assess the loss distribution caused by roughness variations in a Dykas cascade. Furthermore, flow field analysis and entropy generation theory are utilized to examine the loss distribution pattern resulting from leading edge erosion. Results show that increased roughness delays non-equilibrium condensation, reducing average outlet humidity (from 0.05351 to 0.04361 as roughness rises from 0 to 500 µm). The effect of roughness on thermodynamic entropy generation exhibits a non-linear relationship, balancing steam flow losses with mitigated phase-change-related losses at a roughness of 896 µm. Significant blade erosion (>3 mm) alters leading edge geometry, causing local flow separation and a substantial increase in airfoil losses.

Prediction of Progressive Erosion Characteristics of Centrifugal Pump Blades Based on Dynamic Boundaries

Abstract The conventional method of fixed boundaries for predicting erosion inadequately reflects the erosion characteristics of centrifugal pumps under realistic operating conditions. In this research, we employ the dynamic boundary method, considering the influence of changes in wall morphology due to erosion on the flow field. We utilize the Euler-Lagrange approach and the E/CRC erosion model, incorporating a dynamic boundary geometry reconstruction strategy, to predict the erosion characteristics of the IS80-50-315 single-stage single-suction centrifugal pump. Solid-liquid two-phase flow calculations are conducted on the pump to predict erosion characteristics under varied operating conditions. The results show that the dynamic boundary-based progressive erosion prediction method realistically forecasts the erosion characteristics of the overflow wall and captures the evolution of blade morphology with erosion time. Erosion intensity on the blade suction surface significantly surpasses that on the pressure surface, guided by particle distribution characteristics in the centrifugal pump flow channel. Particle diameter primarily influences the erosion position of centrifugal pump blades; smaller particles induce erosion in the middle region of the blade, while an increase in particle diameter shifts the severe erosion position towards the impeller outlet direction. At a consistent particle diameter, higher particle concentrations correspond to elevated erosion rates in the blade area. We establish a relationship between the blade mass loss rate and erosion time during 2500 hours of pump operation at the design condition, introducing the blade mass loss rate for convenient assessment and prediction of blade damage in the centrifugal pump.

Research on wind turbine blade coating erosion modeling based on Generic modeling

Abstract In order to improve the accuracy of the prediction of the erosion phenomenon of wind turbine blade coatings, this study incorporates the wind-sand erosion data of wind turbine blade coating flat specimens obtained through wind tunnel experiments on the basis of the widely used generalized erosion model. A prediction model that accurately reflects the erosion and wear characteristics of wind turbine blade coatings is constructed using the least squares method. All the function parts included in the model showed favorable fitting effects, and the error between the model prediction results and the measured data was limited to a tolerable range. Therefore, the model has proved to be effective in predicting the erosion rate of wind turbine blade coating materials, which provides a solid theoretical foundation for the numerical simulation of the erosion and wear of wind turbine blades in a two-phase wind-sand flow environment.

Relationship Between Wavy Liquid Film Dynamics and Droplet Formation From Trailing Edge

Abstract Erosion of steam turbine blades due to coarse droplet impingement is a serious problem. The physical relationship is still elusive between the dynamics of wavy liquid film on a wall and the droplet dispersion from the trailing edge. In this study, we experimentally and theoretically investigate the liquid film subjected to the turbulent airflow and following fragmentation process under well-controlled flow conditions, where the airflow velocity is up to 100 m/s, and initial liquid film velocity is 0.06 and 0.10 m/s, and trailing edge thicknesses are 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mm. By applying the developed PLIF based method with no use of artificial threshold of brightness, we quantify the film thickness and interfacial friction factor. As the airflow velocity increases, the liquid film instability promotes and the interfacial friction factor increases, much exceeding the Blasius correlation. When the liquid film reaches the trailing edge, several liquid columns extend by the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. We identify that the interfacial friction factor to accelerate the ligament corresponds to the Blasius correlation, distinct from the one on the wavy liquid film upstream. Incorporating the identified two interfacial friction factors, we successfully formulate the diameter of ligament as the characteristic lengthscale of the spreading droplet downstream. Derived formulation for the droplet statistics is well validated by the experimental results of mean and maximum diameters and size distribution.

Prediction of Steam Turbine Blade Erosion Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation Data and Hierarchical Machine Learning

Abstract The information of the degree of blade erosion is vital for the efficient operation of steam turbines. However, it is nearly impossible to directly measure the degree of blade erosion during operation. Moreover, collecting sufficient data of eroded cases for predictive analysis is challenging. Therefore, this paper proposes a blade erosion prediction method using numerical simulation and machine learning. Pressure data of several blade erosion cases are collected from the numerical turbine simulation. The machine learning approach involves training on collected simulation data to predict the degree of erosion for the first-stage stator (1S) and the first-stage rotor blade (1R) from internal pressure data. The proposed erosion prediction model employs a two-step hierarchical approach. First, the proposed model predicts the 1S erosion degree using the k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) regression. Second, the proposed model estimates the 1R erosion degree with linear regression models. These models are tailored for each of the 1S erosion degrees, utilizing pressure data processed through fast Fourier transform (FFT). The evaluation shows that the proposed method achieves the prediction of the 1S erosion with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.000693 mm and the 1R erosion with an MAE of 0.458 mm. The evaluation results indicate that the proposed method can accurately capture the degree of turbine blade erosion from internal pressure data. As a result, the proposed method suggests that the erosion prediction method can be effectively used to determine the optimal timing for maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO).

Numerical Study on the Impact Pressure of Droplets on Wind Turbine Blades Using a Whirling Arm Rain Erosion Tester

The leading-edge erosion of a wind turbine blade was tested using a whirling arm rain erosion tester, whose rotation rate is considerably higher than that of a full-scale wind turbine owing to the scale effect. In this study, we assessed the impact pressure of droplets on a wet surface of wind turbine blades using numerical simulation of liquid droplet impact by solving the Navier–Stokes equations combined with the volume-of-fluid method. This was conducted in combination with an estimation of liquid film thickness on the rotating blade using an approximate solution of Navier–Stokes equations considering the centrifugal and Coriolis forces. Our study revealed that the impact pressure on the rain erosion tester exceeded that on the wind turbine blade, attributed to the thinner liquid film on the rain erosion tester than on the wind turbine blade caused by the influence of centrifugal and Coriolis forces. This indicates the importance of correcting the influence of liquid-film thickness in estimating the impact velocity of droplets on the wind turbine blade. Furthermore, we demonstrated the correction procedure when estimating the impact velocity of droplets on the wind turbine blade.

A numerical study of rainfall effects on wind turbine wakes

Rainfall has significant impacts on the operations of wind turbines due to erosion of turbine blades and alterations in aerodynamic performance of wind turbines. However, little is understood in the influences of rainfall on wind turbine wakes. In this study, large-eddy simulation (LES) coupled with actuator-disk model with rotation (ADM-R) is used to investigate impacts of rainfall on wind turbine wakes. A double Euler method is employed in ADM-R to simulate the rainfall injection. The results of the model indicate that rainfall reduces wind speed in the sweep area and increases wind speed in the outer region of the top tip level by 2.1 %. Furthermore, rainfall reduces turbulence intensity in the near wake and outer wake region of the top tip (up to 2.0 %), with the influence extending up to 10 d (diameters of the wind turbine) in the downstream. These changes have a positive correlation with the rainfall intensity and an inverse correlation with the wind speed. The mean kinetic energy (MKE) and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget analysis reveals that (1) the turbulent radial transport variation of MKE is the primary reason for the rainfall-induced wind speed change; (2) the change in shear production of TKE is responsible for the rainfall-induced turbulent intensity change; (3) the rainfall-induced Reynolds stress −u′w′‾ is the dominant factor of this dynamics.

How leading edge roughness influences rain erosion of wind turbine blades?

Rain erosion of wind turbine blades is observed very commonly and is a concerning issue. Damage on the leading edge of blades leads to loss of aerodynamic efficiency. The mechanisms of damage initiation are not yet fully understood. This study focuses on the effect of existing surface damage or roughness of the leading edge of blades on impact stresses and erosion rates for the protective coating layer. The main mechanisms of interaction between impacting rain droplets and surface irregularities of a polyurethane-based coating are examined through finite element simulations and high-stress areas are identified. The results of the simulations reveal that areas inside erosion pits experience larger von Mises stresses than other undamaged areas. This could be explained by increased velocity as the water flows into erosion pits, observed in the simulations. At the same time, impacts on rough and damaged areas cause large stress values over a larger area than impacts on flat surfaces, due to the interaction with surface damage. These two observations could be the cause for faster erosion rates near damaged areas, as observed in experimental images during rain erosion testing. The predicted elevated stresses due to initial roughness or pre-existing damage could lead to faster damage growth, and to erosion pits growing wider and deeper.

Investigating North Sea Precipitation Variability: Implications for Offshore Wind Energy Siting and Condition Assessments

Rain-driven wind turbine blade erosion, particularly in offshore locations, has been observed as early as within 5 to 7 years of turbine operation, which is below the lifetime expectancy design age of 20 to 25 year. Due to the harsh atmospheric conditions offshore, the preservation of wind turbine blade integrity has become a fundamental necessity. To address this challenge, we compare precipitation maps from two distinct sources (satellite data and a reanalysis product) over 12 years in the region of the North Sea, and we pursue insights into local weather patterns through temporal analysis. This integrated approach enhances the understanding of offshore conditions by focusing on precipitation and wind speed data analysis in time and space. This enables more efficient wind farm planning, operation and maintenance, as well as wind farm siting via informed decisions that account for the risk of rain-driven blade erosion and allow for mitigation measures.

Preventive maintenance of horizontal wind turbines via computational fluid dynamics-driven wall shear stress evaluation

Wind energy is a source of renewable energy that can be converted to electricity using a wind turbine. The typical lifespan of a wind turbine is at least 20–25 years. However, regular monitoring and preventive maintenance are required to ensure optimal performance and to extend the working life of wind turbines. Blade erosion and fatigue are the main structural issues which degrade wind turbine efficiency and lifespan. One method to identify the causes of these structural issues is computational fluid dynamics (CFD) that can be used to investigate relevant physical parameters affecting wind turbine performance. The current study investigated wall shear stress (WSS) or the force per area exerted by the wind close to the surfaces of the turbine blades and simulated the WSS at various points on the blade. The 3-parameter lognormal distribution that represented WSS probability density functions revealed that wind speed, rotational blade speed, and WSS were positively related, with the highest WSS levels occurring at the blade's leading edge, particularly in the region near the blade tip. Based on these findings, regular preventive maintenance plans should carefully monitor the blade leading edges, while protective coatings should be applied. These strategies would help to prevent blade erosion and fatigue, ultimately improving the efficiency and lifespan of the wind turbine. However, further research is needed to refine these CFD simulations and to validate the results based on additional experimental data.

Influence of different turbulence models on tip vortex prediction

Abstract Tip vortex cavitation usually occurs in marine propellers and axial-flow turbines, the cavitation in the tip vortex could potentially result in blade erosion, at the same time, it will cause the pump vibration and noise emission. The tip vortex mainly occurs in rotating machinery with complex three-dimensional flow, but the prediction of the hydrofoil tip vortex can provide a basis for the study of the blade tip vortex in rotating machinery by simplifying the blade model. Hence, in this paper, we use the commercial software CFX to investigate the impact of distinct turbulence models on the configuration of tip vortex distribution in the NACA 16-020 hydrofoil, including SST (Shear Stress Transport), DES (Detached Eddy Simulation), LES (Large Eddy Simulation) turbulence models which are widely used in the field of rotating machinery. At the same time, the axial and radial velocity distributions at different locations downstream of the tip of the hydrofoil are compared to analyse the effects on the velocity distribution near the vortex core line stemming from various turbulence models. By comparing with the experimental data, the most accurate turbulence model for tip vortex prediction is obtained, which will provide guidance for the next step tip vortex prediction and the control of tip vortex flow.

Experimental campaign for the characterization of precipitation in a complex terrain site using high resolution observations

Precipitation has an effect on wind power at several levels. It affects the wind current, blade status, wake development and power production. Power production is affected by the harmful effect of precipitation on the blades eroding its surface and altering their aerodynamic performance. In the past decades, wind has been characterized using different techniques, but less effort has been devoted to precipitation measurement. In this work, the results of an experimental campaign performed at a high altitude complex terrain site to characterize precipitation using high resolution observations are presented. The campaign, carried out at CENER’s experimental wind farm (Alaiz) during 2023 within the framework of the Horizon Europe AIRE project, lasted nine months and different precipitation types (rain, snow, graupel) were recorded using a Micro Rain Radar (MRR), a Parsivel disdrometer and a rain gauge co-located with an instrumented wind mast with anemometers and wind vanes at different heights. Two case studies are selected to illustrate the wide range of variability found in precipitation conditions, particularly during the cool season. Precipitation characterization is very challenging at high temporal resolution, making necessary measurement campaigns with different precipitation equipment to optimize their performance and optimise its calibration. The study of precipitation profiles with MRR will support the study of precipitation impingement on wind turbine blades responsible of blade erosion. Moreover, these measurements will contribute to create the link between in-field wind farm data, laboratory experiments in rain erosion test rig and blade damage models necessary to improve wind turbine and wind farm design and operation.

Mitigating blade erosion damage through nowcast-driven erosion-safe mode control

The erosion-safe mode (ESM) is a novel mitigation strategy that reduces rainfall-induced erosion damage by lowering the tip-speed of the turbine during precipitation events. The ESM requires accurate information about future expected rainfall for its control. In current research, it is debated what method or source should be used to this end. This study explores the effectiveness of driving the ESM using a state-of-the-art weather-radar-based probabilistic rainfall nowcast provided by the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI). The performance of the nowcast is assessed for various lead times with an impingement-based damage model for three sample sites in the Netherlands and for two distinct ESM strategies. The results show that the quality of the nowcast degrades with increasing lead times, where the 5- and 15-minute lead times exhibit sufficiently good accuracy and response time for adjusting turbine speeds. Overall, the results highlight that the probabilistic information in the nowcast can be employed to improve the efficiency and viability of the ESM.

Prediction of rain erosion damage progression using disdrometer rain data: The importance of liquid water content

Wind turbine blade erosion poses a significant challenge to the durability and performance of wind turbines. Modeling of rain erosion damage, considering atmospheric conditions, improves our understanding of the progression of leading-edge erosion on wind turbine blades. In this study, we investigate the impact of varying raindrop characteristics on rain erosion damage development. We analyse 2.5 years of data from a disdrometer, which measures the size and velocity of falling rain droplets, at Risø campus. Various post-processing methods of the disdrometer data are used for estimating representative droplet diameters and fall velocities for each rain event. We compare measured droplet fall velocities with theoretical terminal velocities, revealing a necessity for revising theoretical approaches to raindrop fall velocity for erosion damage modeling. The measured rain rates and representative fall velocities are used to calculate the liquid water content in the air. We introduce a bin-wise summation method for estimating the liquid water content, circumventing the need for representative droplet assumptions. As this method provides the most accurate input for the damage model, we benchmark the other post-processing methods against it and employ it to evaluate bias estimates of associated damage predictions. The largest bias (22%) in accumulated damage is found with an arithmetic mean droplet diameter approach and the smallest bias (-2%) with the median volume estimation method for damage model input. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, for a given rainfall volume, smaller droplets contribute to larger accumulated damage compared to larger droplets.

Estimating the Influence of Compressor Blade Erosion Wear on the Compressor’s Integral and Local Characteristics

Estimating the Influence of Compressor Blade Erosion Wear on the Compressor’s Integral and Local Characteristics

Impact of meteorological data factors and material characterization method on the predictions of leading edge erosion of wind turbine blades

Leading edge erosion of wind turbine blades is a major contributor to wind farm energy yield losses and maintenance costs. Presented is a multidisciplinary framework for predicting rain erosion lifetimes of wind turbine blades. Key aim is assessing the sensitivity of lifetime predictions to: modeling aspects (material erosion model, blade aerodynamics), input data and/or their preprocessing (joint frequency distribution of wind speed and droplet size based on synchronous site-specific measurements versus frequency distribution generated with partly site-agnostic modeling standards, wind speed records of nacelle anemometer or extrapolated at hub height from met masts), and environmental conditions (UV weathering). The analyses consider a Northwest England onshore site where a utility-scale turbine is operational, focus on a reference 5 MW turbine assumed operational at the site, and use a typical leading edge coating material. It is found that the largest variations in erosion lifetime predictions are due to material erosion model (based on rain erosion test data or fundamental material properties) and wind and rain model (measurement-based joint wind speed and droplet size distribution or standard-based modeled distribution). The use of joint wind and rain distribution also enables identifying wind/rain states with highest erosion potential, knowledge paramount to deploying erosion-safe turbine control.

Passive control of the condensing flows in the three-dimensional steam turbine blade using a suction technique

A great amount of thermodynamic losses and mechanical damages in industrial equipment occur due to the condensation phenomenon and two-phase flows in such equipment. In this study, supercooled vapor suction has been passively used in the 3D (three-dimensional) steam turbine stationary blade. Supercooled vapor suction is one of the techniques used in turbines for resisting corrosion and erosion. For the supercooled flow suction, the design is as follows: an embedded channel inside the turbine blade in the nucleation zone, which has the utmost non-equilibrium mode; furthermore, the impacts of the location and surface of the channels devised in the turbine blade for supercooled vapor suction on the following parameters have been investigated: the two-phase flow, the suction ratio, condensation losses, erosion ratio, the average droplet growth, and kinetic energy. Based on the results, in the optimal case (case F), the condensation losses, erosion ratio, average droplet radius, and kinetic energy decrease by 3%, 24%, 6.5%, and 2%, respectively; also, the suction ratio is 3.6%. The present research reveals that the supercooled vapor suction, due to a decrease in the surface necessary for the condensation, decreases turbine blade corrosion and erosion. This fact can provide the turbine designers with beneficial information.

Investigation of heterogeneous condensation flow characteristics in the steam turbine based on homogeneous-heterogeneous condensation coupling model using OpenFOAM

Non-equilibrium condensation can result in thermodynamic losses within turbine stages and potentially cause blade erosion. During turbine operation, steam frequently carries foreign particles, which can influence non-equilibrium condensation. However, there is a lack of systematic research on the specific effects of these particles on the condensation processes. This paper firstly utilizes OpenFOAM to establish a homogeneous-heterogeneous condensation coupling model, which is validated for accuracy through experimental data. Secondly, it investigates the effects of NaCl particle concentration and radius on the heterogeneous condensation process in Laval nozzles and Dykas cascades. Finally, it examines the relationship between the kinetic energy ratio, condensation loss ratio, wetness fraction ratio, and particle concentration and radius in turbine cascades to explore the optimal method for reducing the impact of condensation phase change in steam turbines. The results indicate that nucleation rate decreases as particle radius decreases and concentration increases in Laval nozzle. However, the effect of concentration on wetness is non-linear; as concentration increases, wetness initially decreases before increasing. In comparison to homogeneous condensation within Dykas cascades, when the introduced particle radius is 1 × 10−9 m and the concentration is 1014kg−1, the kinetic energy increases by 2.93%, condensation loss decreases by 22.91%, and wetness fraction decreases by 23.64%.