Urban Black Communities Research Articles

Seeing change in seafood: examining impacts of globalization and climate change on mid-atlantic black american foodways

ABSTRACT Foodways develop as human communities adapt to changing geographic, environmental, and economic circumstances. In this paper, we examine seafood foodways in an urban Black American community in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States and place those foodways in the context of two northward migrations. The first is the Great Migration, one of the largest human migration events ever—when Black Americans emigrated from the southern United States during the middle of the twentieth century. The second is the more recent and ongoing northward range shifts of marine species along the eastern United States seaboard related to climate change. As fish species continue to move north, availability of culturally familiar seafood species in the region is changing. We use interviews to characterize the culture of seafood consumption among Black residents of Philadelphia, descendants of those that came during the Great Migration. In parallel, we draw upon Atlantic fisheries data, to examine the case of whiting (Merluccius bilinearis), documenting the simultaneous changing abundance and catch of this species over the last two decades. This study illuminates challenges that both globalization and climate change pose for food systems and foodways. Keywords: fish, foodways, Merluccius bilinearis, Philadelphia, silver hake, silver trout, whiting

Racial/Ethnic disparities in exposure to neighborhood violence and lung cancer risk in Chicago

BackgroundDespite the lower prevalence and frequency of smoking, Black adults are disproportionately affected by lung cancer. Exposure to chronic stress generates heightened immune responses, which creates a cell environment conducive to lung cancer development. Residents in poor and segregated neighborhoods are exposed to increased neighborhood violence, and chronic exposure to violence may have downstream physiological stress responses, which may explain racial disparities in lung cancer in predominantly Black urban communities. MethodsWe utilized retrospective electronic medical records of patients who underwent a screening or diagnostic test for lung cancer at an academic medical center in Chicago to examine the associations between lung cancer diagnosis and individual characteristics (age, gender, race/ethnicity, and smoking status) and neighborhood-level homicide rate. We then used a synthetic population to estimate the neighborhood-level lung cancer risk to understand spatial clusters of increased homicide rates and lung cancer risk. ResultsOlder age and former/current smoking status were associated with increased odds of lung cancer diagnosis. Hispanic patients were more likely than White patients to be diagnosed with lung cancer, but there was no statistical difference between Black and White patients in lung cancer diagnosis. The odds of being diagnosed with lung cancer were significantly higher for patients living in areas with the third and fourth quartiles of homicide rates compared to the second quartile of homicide rates. Furthermore, significant spatial clusters of increased lung cancer risk and homicide rates were observed on Chicago's South and West sides. ConclusionsNeighborhood violence was associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. Black residents in Chicago are disproportionately exposed to neighborhood violence, which may partially explain the existing racial disparity in lung cancer. Incorporating neighborhood violence exposure into lung cancer risk models may help identify high-risk individuals who could benefit from lung cancer screening.

Vaccine Equity: Lessons Learned Exploring Facilitators and Barriers to COVID-19 Vaccination in Urban Black Communities.

COVID-19 vaccines were developed at unparalleled speed, but racial disparities persist in vaccine uptake. This is a cross-sectional survey that was conducted in mid-2021 in ambulatory clinics across Brooklyn, New York. The objectives of the study were to assess: knowledge of COVID-19, healthcare communication and access, attitudes including trust in the process of vaccine development and mistrust due to racial discrimination, and to determine the relationship of the above to vaccine receipt. 58 respondents self-identified as Black non-Hispanic and completed the survey: the majority were women (79%), <50years old (65%), employed (66%), and had annual household income <$75,000 (59%). The majority reported having some health insurance (97%) and a regular place of healthcare (95%). 60% of respondents reported COVID-19 vaccination receipt. A significant percentage of the vaccinated group compared to the unvaccinated group scored higher on knowledge questions (91% vs. 65%; p = 0.018), felt it was important that others in the community get vaccinated (89% vs. 65%, p = 0.04), and trusted vaccine safety (86% vs. 35%; p < 0.0001) and effectiveness (88% vs. 48%; p < 0.001). The unvaccinated group reported a lower annual household income of <$75,000 (72% vs. 50%; p = 0.0002) and also differed by employment status (p = 0.04). Majority in both groups agreed that racial discrimination interferes with healthcare (78%). In summary, unvaccinated Black non-Hispanic respondents report significant concerns about vaccine safety and efficacy and have greater mistrust in the vaccine development process. The relationship between racial discrimination, mistrust, and vaccine hesitancy needs further study in order to improve vaccine uptake in this population.

Rising Racial Disparities in Opioid Mortality and Undertreatment of Opioid Use Disorder and Mental Health Comorbidities in Virginia

There were more than 100,000 fatal drug overdoses in the U.S. in 2021 alone. In recent years, there has been a shift in opioid mortality from predominantly White rural communities to Black urban communities. This study aimed to identify the Virginia communities disproportionately affected by the overdose crisis and to better understand the systemic factors contributing to disparities in opioid mortality. Using the state all-payer claims database, state mortality records, and census data, we created a multivariate model to examine the community-level factors contributing to racial disparities in opioid mortality. We used generalized linear mixed models to examine the associations between socioecologic factors and fatal opioid overdoses, opioid use disorder diagnoses, opioid-related emergency department visits, and mental health diagnoses. Between 2015 and 2020, racial disparities in mortality widened. In 2020, Black males were 1.5 times more likely to die of an opioid overdose than White males (47.3 vs 31.6 per 100,000; p<0.001). The rate of mental health disorders strongly correlated with mortality (β=0.53, p<0.001). Black individuals are not more likely to be diagnosed with opioid use disorder (β=0.01, p=0.002) or with mental health disorders (β= -0.12, p<0.001), despite higher fatal opioid overdoses. There are widening racial disparities in opioid mortality. Untreated mental health disorders are a major risk factor for opioid mortality. Findings show pathways to address inequities, including early linkage to care for mental health and opioid use disorders. This analysis shows the use of comprehensive socioecologic data to identify the precursors to fatal overdoses, which could allow earlier intervention and reallocation of resources in high-risk communities.

Disciplining Our Own: Politicizing the Image of the Strict Black Principals, 1970-1985

Between the 1970s and 1980s, a bipartisan group of philanthropists, educational researchers, and eventually the Ronald Reagan administration politicized the image of the strict school disciplinarian as the key to urban school turnaround. While Black communities saw Black leaders as part of a broader project of racial and economic justice, local and national networks of educational elites reduced Black urban communities’ demands for self-determination to the disciplinarian strategies of strict Black leaders. This group of actors advanced Black school leaders’ disciplinarian strategies as a substitute for structural reforms that targeted the political and economic conditions that constrained urban schools. This idea of the strict Black disciplinarian clarifies how discipline became a dominant focus of school reform after 1970. In doing so, it deepens understanding of the educationalization of social problems, clarifies how and why discipline became a dominant focus of school reform after 1970, and illuminates the consequences of the neoliberal carceral turn in urban education.

Black Canadians' Exposure to Everyday Racism: Implications for Health System Access and Health Promotion among Urban Black Communities.

This study explores the social determinants of Black Canadians’ exposure to everyday racism, its relationship to health system access, and implications for health promotion. We used data from the A/C Study survey on HIV transmission and prevention among Black Canadians. We implemented the survey (N = 1360) in 2018–2019 in Toronto and Ottawa—two large cities that together account for 42% of Canada’s Black population—among self-identified Black residents aged 15–64 years, who were born in sub-Sahara Africa or the Caribbean or had a parent who was born in those regions. Participants reported racist encounters in the preceding 12 months using the Everyday Discrimination Scale. We assessed the socio-demographic correlates of racist experiences and the impact of racism on health system access using multivariable generalised linear models. Sixty percent of participants reported experiencing racism in the preceding 12 months. Based on the adjusted odds ratios, participants were more likely to experience racism if they were older, employed, Canadian-born, had higher levels of education, self-identified as LGBTQ + and reported generally moderate access to basic needs and adequate housing; and less likely to experience racism if they lived in Ottawa, self-identified as female or reported higher levels of social capital. Visiting a healthcare provider or facility, and difficulty accessing healthcare were associated with racist experiences. Racist experiences diminished the likelihood of being tested for HIV. Racist experiences were widespread, especially among those with higher levels of social wellbeing or greater exposure to Canadian institutions. Study participants also associated racist experiences with the healthcare system.

They Call Me Magic

They Call Me Magic

Mothering in the Streets: The Familial Adaptation Strategies of Street-Identified Black American Mothers.

Using components of the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model, Critical Race Feminism, and Sites of Resilience this study explored how street-identified Black American mothers engage in street life, while juggling the pressures of childrearing, family, and home life within a distressed, urban Black community. Street-identified Black American mothers are vilified for their intersecting identities of being Black women who are experiencing poverty, and who may also be involved in illegal activity. Black mothers are disproportionately represented in the criminal legal system, but existing research has inadequately examined how street-identified Black mothers "do" family in the confines of structural violence. We addressed this gap by analyzing interview data with 39 street-identified Black American mothers ages 18 to 54. Data were collected using street participatory action research. We identified a typology of three adaptive mothering strategies employed by street-identified Black women as they respond to and cope with violent structural conditions shaping their mothering: constrained mothering, racialized mothering, and aspirational mothering. Findings suggested that these strategies were developed in response to an overarching carceral apparatus, of which these mothers were tasked with avoiding when possible and confronting when necessary. Their mothering strategies were shaped by a collective, Black American cultural identity and worldview, and the mothers possessed a unique way of perceiving the world as criminalized subjects with disproportionate proximity to the punitive State.

A Qualitative Analysis to Understand Perception about Medication-Related Problems among Older Minority Adults in a Historically Black Community.

Older adults taking multiple chronic medications experience an increased risk of adverse drug events and other medication-related problems (MRP). Most current literature on medication management involves researcher-driven intervention, yet few studies investigate patients’ understanding of MRP in a diverse community setting. This report investigates patients’ perception of MRP and patient-centered strategies among a cohort of the older adult group in a historically Black urban community. The study design is qualitative using structured open-ended questions in a multidisciplinary patient-centered focus group. Patients (age 65 years or older) taking seven or more medications were recruited. The group comprises patients, caregivers, pharmacists, health educators, a physician, and a nurse. Recordings of the group discussion are transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic content analysis and categorized by codes developed from the social-ecological model. The group reports patient-provider relationships, previous experience, fear of side effects played important roles in medication adherence. There is an unmet need for medication management education and tools to organize complex medication lists from multiple providers. This study provides important insights into MRP experienced by minority older adults and provided researchers with potential strategies for future interventions.

Black Freedom in the Age of Slavery: Race, Status, and Identity in the Urban Americas

Black Freedom in the Age of Slavery: Race, Status, and Identity in the Urban Americas

Fatal blow: Urbicidal geographies, pax colonial and black sovereignty in the Colombian city

This article gives ethnographic form to Fanon’s warning that in the colonial world, “zombies are more terrifying than settlers,” by analyzing how racial mythologies produce spatial classifications of Black urban communities as unruly places and how Black individuals challenge their wretched condition by embracing a “program of complete disorder.” To do so, the article analyzes the short(ened) life of Paco, a young Black man under house arrest whose retaliatory violence against, and territorial dispute with, the police is an entry point for exploring resistance to urban coloniality in Santiago de Cali/Colombia. The article engages with the field of Black geography to propose a Fanonian reading of contemporary cityscapes as colonial spaces. Such colonial spatialities, it is argued, are not defined merely by subjugation to death but also, as Paco’s refusal to be killed may reveal, by an insurgent spatial praxis that might reposition the Black subject in relation to the city and the regime of Law.

People, policy, history: citizenship and black urban communities in South Africa

ABSTRACT State-led efforts to limit the presence of black South Africans in urban areas during the colonial and apartheid eras led to recurrent attempts at self-governance within black urban areas, which produced varying types of non-state socio-political organisation. Based on a historical analysis of policy and politics, I propose that the material needs and citizenship claims of black urban communities have been historically expressed via these non-state organisational intermediaries, which have taken form within different social, political, and economic contexts. Based on this position, I propose a reconsideration of Mahmood Mamdani’s (1996, Citizen and Subject: contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Colonialism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) analysis of the historical and institutional contradictions that derived from the colonial era in South Africa. In addition, I suggest that anthropologists of policy consider analysing longer, interconnected histories of policy process in order to more accurately situate the social, cultural, political, and economic conditions within which policies take shape.

Truth, Justice, and Expertise in 1980s Britain: the Cultural Politics of the New Cross Massacre

Abstract This article examines the movement, led by prominent black British activists, which was established in the aftermath of the 1981 New Cross fire. The campaign showed how the racism long experienced by black urban communities eroded trust in state institutions, and it contested the official narrative of the police investigation and a coroner’s inquest through protests and the deployment of alternative forms of expertise. This was not an isolated case. The 1980s was a decade of disasters which led people in marginalized communities to engage in long-running disputes with the state, eroding trust in the truths presented by he state.

Sacred recipes: The praxis, power, and politics of Black food culture

Garth and Reese’s edited volume Black Food Matters paints a vivid picture of the evolution of Black food culture as it negotiates the socio-cultural and political complexities surrounding food and race in America. This work centers around the manifestation of Black food in all its stages, from seed to plate, recognizing that it is both a reflection of the lived experiences of Black people in America and an outright rejection of the harm inflicted on them through a persistently anti-Black structural context. The authors trace the resistance and sur­vival praxis of Black food culture from its earliest origins in the practices of slaves on the Middle Passage to the contemporary practices of local-food–based economies in Black urban and rural communities across the nation. In doing so, each of the authors highlights the ongoing threat that racial capitalism poses to the cultural integrity and socio-economic sustainability of Black com­muni­ties. Readers are able to draw valuable com­parisons between the past and present as they see how Black alimentary and economic autarky have consistently been met with multifaceted exploita­tion by mainstream, white-dominated society. And yet, the stories told by the book’s authors are ones of resilience and dignity, highlighting the innova­tion, adaptability, and forti­tude of Black people, as reflected in both African-American and Afro-diasporic food culture.

Authoritarian Violence, Public Health, and the Necropolitical State: Engaging the South African Response to COVID-19

Abstract Following COVID-19’s arrival in March 2020, the South African government implemented a restrictive state-led response to the pandemic, limiting infections along with the survival strategies of those at greatest risk of illness. While the country’s aggressive tactics towards the pandemic have been lauded by some, the public health response has taken a violent turn towards the country’s historically marginalized Black urban population. How are we to make sense of the ruling African National Congress’ decision to utilize the South African state’s capacity for violence towards poor and working-class Black urban communities? How can this disease response be contextualized within the broader dynamics of citizenship across South African history? Building on these questions, I analyze South African efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic alongside the state response to an outbreak of bubonic plague during the colonial era. I propose that the South African state carries within it divergent historical continuities, some of which carry forward the necropolitical modalities of the colonial and apartheid eras and others that redistribute resources to safeguard life.

Comparison of the prevalence of non-communicable diseases and traditional herbal medicine use in urban and rural communities in South Africa

BackgroundTo quantify the use of traditional herbal medicines (THM), we documented the prevalence of specific health conditions, the use of THM and the influences and reasons for using indigenous treatment practices. MethodsA cross-sectional descriptive study using a homogenous purposive sampling among 721 South Africans living in rural and urban black South African communities. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data between April–October 2014 on clinical/medical history, health-seeking behavior, and Traditional Herbal Medicine (THM) use. Descriptive, bivariate and multivariable analyses was done using R. ResultsMajority of participants (77.5%) were from the urban area. More than (90%) had no health insurance, and 80% had monthly income of< R2000 (equivalent to $ 126) in both urban and rural areas. Most participants had NCD irrespective of location, but prevalence was higher amongst urban dwellers (61%). Hypertension was found to be the most dominant cardiovascular disease risk factor. Rural participants had statistically significant higher rates of hypertension (67.1%) and diabetes (32.1%). Use of THM was significantly associated with recommendations by family or colleagues. Participants who reported poorer health status in rural areas used THM more than those in urban areas. Using multiple logistic regression, rural participants have greater than 12-to-1 odds of being THM users than urban participants (odds ratio [OR]=12.62; 95% confidence interval [CI]=(4.09, 55.34)). ConclusionsNCDs were more prevalent in urban communities with hypertension being the most prevalent. There is widespread use of THM across South Africa. Rural residents and individuals of low social economic status rely more on THM. These findings suggest a need for systematic and larger studies to understand the magnitude and predictors of variation in access to and use of healthcare services, as these are critical to developing effective culturally appropriate interventions for approaching hard-to-reach patients. Helping patients navigate the complex healthcare system is the hallmark of a responsive system of care.

The Correlation Between Parental Perceptions and Readiness to Change with Participation in a Pediatric Obesity Program Serving a Predominantly Black Urban Community: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

This study assessed whether maternal BMI and perceptions about weight and reported level of readiness to change was correlated with compliance to a pediatric lifestyle modification program targeting a hard-to-reach urban population with a high prevalence of severe obesity. The Parental Readiness Questionnaire (PRQ) was administered to the child's mother at program entry. The PRQ consisted of forty-seven multiple-choice and 10-point Likert scale questions regarding family demographics, exercise and eating habits, attitudes about health, body image, and weight, and the desire to improve nutrition and physical activity. Analysis was performed on PRQs of participants to compare parental perceptions and readiness for change with compliance to program requirements. Analysis was conducted on 596 questionnaires and compliance was categorized into three groups based on attendance to follow-up visits. Significant differences were found between short-term and long-term follow-up groups in regards to parental perception of one's health as well as the health, weight, and body image of their child. Differences were found in perceptions of one's own weight and body image as well as the health of one's self and child between the group with a maternal BMI < 35 and the group with a maternal BMI ≥ 35. A lower maternal BMI was associated with a better perception of one's own weight, body image, and health, as well as the health of the child. Positive parental perceptions on weight were correlated with improved compliance to a pediatric lifestyle modification program.

Depicting "the system": How structural racism and disenfranchisement in the United States can cause dynamics in community violence among males in urban black communities.

A complex system of factors interacting across time shapes community violence. It is not well understood how features of persons, institutions and communities interact as a "system" to produce escalating community violence. We aimed to integrate theoretical and experiential knowledge among young African-American urban males to develop a concept model of key causal structures driving dynamics of community violence escalation over time in a context of historical racism. We analyzed three published sources (two documentary films and one ethnography) containing lived experience perspectives on community violence escalation among African American males in three U.S. cities experiencing civil unrest due to structural racism. Qualitative descriptive analysis identified features in three key thematic categories: racialized policies and practices, economic and social disenfranchisement, and intrapsychic factors. We used causal loop diagramming, a system dynamics method designed for depicting dynamic hypotheses about the system structure producing observed trends over time, to represent the dynamic relationships among identified individual and community variables. The concept model contained key feedback structures capable of generating exponential growth in violence - providing detailed dynamic hypotheses about how violence can beget more violence ("violence escalation") within a community. Referred to as reinforcing feedback loops, these dynamics involved development of kill-or-be-killed norms, civil unrest emerging from racially oppressive policies, internalizing the code of the streets to seek outward displays of power, and processes that get one "stuck" or not able to break out of the system of violence. Qualitative system dynamics methods offered an approach to uncover and hypothesize the complex, dynamic relationships between variables shaping violence escalation trends. The resulting causal loop diagram hypothesized dynamic mechanisms capable of creating and perpetuating racial disparities in community violence escalation, that can be tested in future research to inform action to break observed cycles of community violence.

Promoting Interdisciplinary, Participatory Approaches to Address Childhood Asthma Disparities in an Urban Black Community.

Black children are twice as likely as non-Hispanic white children to have asthma due to an interplay of socioeconomic, historical, and industrial factors. The underlying socio-economic and structural inequities result in poor adherence to recommended asthma management treatments. National guidelines suggest asthma action plans (AAPs) as a tool for patient self-management, yet they remain underutilized. Boot Camp Translation (BCT), rooted in community-based participatory research, provides a method for engaging communities to improve health literacy. This article describes the successful use of BCT to develop a culturally relevant AAP promotion campaign in West Louisville, a predominantly Black community that experiences social and health disparities.

‘A world of many Souths’: (anti)Blackness and historical difference in conversation with Ananya Roy

ABSTRACT On 2–3 October 2018, an interdisciplinary group of scholars and community organizers were invited to participate in “(anti)Blackness in the American Metropolis,” 2-day workshop in Baltimore, Maryland. Each shared research on the effects of anti-Blackness policies and practices in U.S. cities and place-based organizing tactics designed to address and refute them. The event sought to merge a gap in the study of urban black communities exiting between Black Studies and Geography. The event culminated in a keynote address by Dr. Ananya Roy on the political potential of forging intellectual and communal relationships across the Global South. This interview, conducted in the aftermath of the workshop, extends Dr. Roy’s address. Here, she discusses her personal and political growth, her recent intellectual interface with the Black Radical Tradition, as well as her rationale for participating in this inaugural workshop.