Victorian Bushfires Research Articles

Strategies to enhance resilience post-natural disaster: a qualitative study of experiences with Australian floods and fires.

Disasters have a significant impact on mental health that may be mitigated by promoting resilience. This study explores the lay perspective on public health interventions that have the potential to facilitate resilience of adults who experience a natural disaster. Semi-structured interviews were conducted 6 months post-disaster between June 2011 and January 2012 with 19 people who experienced the 2010/11 Victorian floods. Twenty lay witness statements from people who presented to the 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission were also selected for analysis. Transcripts were analysed using an interpretive and comparative content analysis to develop an understanding of disaster resilience interventions in an ecological framework. The participants identified resilience focused interventions such as information that help individuals manage emotions and make effective decisions and plans, or enable access to resources; face-to-face communication strategies such as public events that restore or create new social connections; rebuilding of community capacity through coordination of volunteers and donations and policies that manage disaster risk. Disaster recovery interventions designed within an ecological model can promote a comprehensive integrated systems approach to support resilience in affected populations.

Vale Neil McKern - Australian Insulin Receptor Scientist.

Neil Moreton McKern, the first author on the landmark paper describing the crystal structure of the human insulin receptor ectodomain (1), passed away on the 20 March 2014 after a year-long battle with multiple myeloma. Neil McKern was born on 17 December 1946 at Richmond, New South Wales. His career in science began at the age of 18 as a technical assistant to Dr. Fred Stewart in the CSIRO Division of Protein Chemistry in Parkville, VIC, Australia, where he worked on the chemical synthesis of the peptide hormone oxytocin. Neil then studied part time, obtaining a B.Sc. degree in 1971 and a Ph.D. degree in 1981, both from the University of Melbourne. His thesis title was “Serum somatomedin and the regulation of growth-studies with rodent models.” Over the subsequent 10 years at CSIRO, Neil contributed to several aspects of protein science, including the purification of wool proteins for structure determination, the sequencing of the pilin protein of Dichelobacter nodosus (which causes footrot in sheep), the study of the proteins of infectious bursal disease virus (a major poultry pathogen) coupled with development of a recombinant vaccine, and the study of variation in the coat protein sequence across the Potyviridae (the largest family of plant viruses). These projects reflected the agricultural priorities of CSIRO’s science at the time. Figure 1 Neil McKern in 2006. These endeavors laid the foundation for Neil’s involvement starting in 1992 with what was to become a “grand challenge” at CSIRO, namely, Colin Ward’s program to understand the structural biology of the insulin receptor, the Type 1 insulin-like growth factor, and the epidermal growth factor receptor. Spurred on by the successful determination of the structure of the human growth hormone bound to its receptor by Tony Kosiakoff and colleagues at Genentech, the allure of a structure of insulin bound to its receptor was irresistible. However, the complexity of these receptor ectodomains proved to be substantial – high levels of glycosylation, high numbers of disulfide bonds, and the existence of multiple liganded states. Neil masterminded the practicalities of purifying bulk quantities of the ectodomains and truncated ectodomain fragments of these receptors from large (100 l plus) scale mammalian cell culture supernatants. His demands were high – to achieve tens of milligram quantities of receptor protein displaying no more than one band on an isoelectric focusing gel. He set up the first forays of the lab into robotic protein crystallization and the combination of this technology with isoelectrically pure protein finally delivered the first – and still only – structures of the Type 1 IGF-1 receptor L1-CR-L2 fragment (2), the insulin receptor L1-CR-L2 fragment (3), and the intact insulin receptor ectodomain (1). Such care and ingenuity absorbed Neil until 2007, at which point CSIRO terminated the project upon Colin’s retirement. His endeavors also led to structures of the truncated ectodomains of the epidermal growth factor receptor in complex with TGFα (4) and of its co-family member ErbB2 (5). Neil retired from CSIRO in 2010, but not before playing a key role in ensuring that the structural studies of the insulin receptor continued at the neighboring Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research in Melbourne. Always striking to all Neil’s colleagues was his cheerful optimism, which was coupled with healthy cynicism about the way in which his employing organization functioned. Part of this optimism derived no doubt from his passion for running, which seemed to not only energize his body but also to provide a wealth of ideas about how to prepare the next sample for crystallization. Giving up on the “grand challenge” would have to Neil been akin to pulling out of a marathon half way along the course. Neil was dedicated to his family, which together faced the challenge of re-building their beloved family retreat in Marysville after it burnt to the ground in the devastating Black Saturday bushfires of 2009. For us, and for the many others who worked with him, his enthusiasm for science, and his collegial support is greatly missed.

Psychological outcomes following the Victorian Black Saturday bushfires

We aimed to map the prevalence and predictors of psychological outcomes in affected communities 3-4 years after the Black Saturday bushfires in the state of Victoria, Australia. Baseline assessment of a longitudinal cohort study in high-, medium-, and low-affected communities in Victoria. Participants included 1017 residents of high-, medium-, and low-affected fire communities. Participants were surveyed by means of a telephone and web-based interview between December 2011 and January 2013. The survey included measures of fire-related post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and general PTSD from other traumatic events, major depressive episode, alcohol use, and general psychological distress. The majority of respondents in the high- (77.3%), medium- (81.3%), and low-affected (84.9%) communities reported no psychological distress on the K6 screening scale. More participants in the high-affected communities (15.6%) reported probable PTSD linked to the bushfires than medium- (7.2%) and low-affected (1.0%) communities (odds ratio (OR): 4.57, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.61-8.00, p = 0.000). Similar patterns were observed for depression (12.9%, 8.8%, 6.3%, respectively) (OR: 1.83, 95% CI: 1.17-2.85, p = 0.008) and severe psychological distress (9.8%, 5.0%, 4.9%, respectively) (OR: 2.08, 95% CI: 1.23-3.55, p = 0.007). All communities reported elevated rates of heavy drinking (24.7%, 18.7%, 19.6%, respectively); however, these were higher in the high-affected communities (OR: 1.39, 95% CI: 1.01-1.89, p = 0.04). Severe psychological distress was predicted by fear for one's life in the bushfires, death of someone close to them in the bushfires, and subsequent stressors. One-third of those with severe psychological distress did not receive mental health assistance in the previous month. Several years following the Black Saturday bushfires the majority of affected people demonstrated resilience without indications of psychological distress. A significant minority of people in the high-affected communities reported persistent PTSD, depression, and psychological distress, indicating the need for promotion of the use of health and complementary services, community-based initiatives, and family and other informal supports, to target these persistent problems.

‘An Image of Hope in a Week of Despair’: Representations of Sam the Koala in the Australian Mainstream News Media

Natural disasters are events with far-reaching humanitarian implications that frequently receive international attention through the use of an image that comes to represent the disaster in question. The most successful images often comprise ‘identifiable’ and therefore human victims. What is more unusual is for a single animal image to become representative of an entire disaster. This was the case with the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia, when the image of a firefighter offering a koala a drink gained international fame. Given that this image of ‘Sam’ the koala does not conform to traditional disaster imagery, we undertook a thematic analysis of mainstream news media representations of Sam in order to identify how she was represented by the media. In this article, we discuss these themes in relation to the ‘identifiable victim’, together with the implications of Sam's success in terms of disaster-relief campaigns.

Build back better: implementation in Victorian bushfire reconstruction

The 'build back better' (BBB) concept signals an opportunity to decrease the vulnerability of communities to future disasters during post-disaster reconstruction and recovery. The 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia serve as a case study for this assessment of the application of core BBB principles and their outcomes. The results show that several BBB measures were successfully implemented in Victoria and are relevant for any post-disaster reconstruction effort. The BBB initiatives taken in Victoria include: land-use planning determined by hazard risk-based zoning; enforcement of structural design improvements; facilitated permit procedures; regular consultations with stakeholders; and programmes conducted for social and economic recovery. Lessons from the Victorian recovery urge the avoidance of construction in high-risk zones; fairness and representativeness in community consultations; adequate support for economic recovery; the advance establishment of recovery frameworks; and empowerment of local councils.

Where do we start? A proposed post-disaster intervention framework for children and young people

The impact of disasters on the mental health, well-being and social inclusion of children and young people is well established. However, there is very limited evidence about effective community-based interventions to support positive outcomes. In this paper, we review the empirical and theoretical evidence and propose a conceptual framework to guide longer term community-based interventions, modified from an already developed multidimensional framework for refugee integration. We demonstrate its relevance, with some adjustments, through alignment with the disaster literature, particularly as it relates to children and young people. We also pilot the framework by applying it to an analysis of the services and initiatives delivered to support children and young people following the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia. The results suggested a concentration of funding on individually oriented, mental health programmes targeting secondary school-aged students. This may indicate under-resourcing of initiatives for younger children. There also appeared to be very limited inclusion of programmes aiming to re-establish a sense of safety and stability. Despite recognition of the important role of schools in supporting children and young people post-disaster, the analysis of initiatives indicated there was limited external funding support for school-based programmes. There were promising indications of programmes providing opportunities for children and young people to develop citizenship in the post-disaster recovery context, and scope for this to be extended to preparedness and response roles.

Managing Crises; the Tales of Queensland and Victoria

In recent years Australia has seen a number of large scale disasters which have tested community resilience and the ability of governments to respond effectively in the face of significant challenges. The Victorian Bushfires (2009) and Queensland Floods (2011) represent two such events which have had a significant impact on the relevant communities, as well as posing broader questions regarding the way in which governments utilise connected or whole of government frameworks to respond. This paper will provide an overview of key characteristics related to each of the case studies, with a view to understanding how these may have led to different outcomes in terms of the whole of government response. It will consider the context of each of the case studies including policy orientations, organisational structures and the approach that each jurisdiction took leading up to and in the immediate aftermath of the crisis before providing an analysis of the two cases.

Media Coverage of the Black Saturday Bushfires (2009) and Discussion of Climate Change in Australia

This research examines what issues are presented in the Australian print media regarding the ongoing discussions of the anthropogenic climate change in the wake of the Black Saturday bushfires in 2009. It selected three Australian leading newspapers–The Age, The Australian and the Herald Sun. To analyze newspaper contents this study undertakes the mass media agenda setting as theoretical guideline. Findings argue that despite a minimum resistance to the concerns of the climate change issues in the wake of the bushfires, generally all of the three newspapers presented this issue within a broader ideological parameter of free market economy which avoids the sustained debates of the Australia’s emission of the greenhouse gasses and other social context of the country.

“Black Saturday” and its Aftermath: Reflecting on Postdisaster Social Work Interventions in an Australian Trauma Hospital

Social workers at The Alfred, a major tertiary referral teaching hospital in Melbourne, Australia, played a key role in providing psychosocial support to patients and their families following the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in the State of Victoria. Faced with the highest number of casualties ever admitted simultaneously, and the media and community involvement surrounding the national disaster, new practice challenges emerged that led to tensions when compared to everyday practice. This article examines three challenges identified in the team's critical reflections—managing privacy and publicity; negotiating the boundaries of professional practice; and managing the impact of the work. These practice challenges are considered in light of relevant trauma and disaster literature that addresses the importance of promoting self-efficacy, hope, and connectedness; forming collective narratives of survivorship and resilience; negotiating the ethical questions of service intimacy and intensity; and implementing both active and avoidant self-care strategies. These challenges are relevant to disaster work that social workers and other health professionals will respond to in the future, and therefore they can inform disaster planning responses.

The 2009 Victorian Bushfires

One of the expected consequences of climate change is an increase in the frequency and intensity of weather extremes such as heat waves, droughts, and large-scale bushfires. The possible escalation in the frequency and magnitude of resulting impacts has led to arguments that future strategies for emergency management should be based on achieving organizational and community resilience. However, relatively little is known about the limits to conventional emergency management approaches and factors leading to resilience. Drawing on the 2009 Victorian Bushfires as an analogue for a “more-severe-than-expected” event likely under a future, changed climate, this article analyzes the limits to emergency management approaches under unfamiliar conditions. Our assessment focuses on three organizations involved in the Victorian Bushfires emergency response. Results show how events that occur with unprecedented severity are well beyond the routine emergency management capacities of emergency organizations. We discuss how the long-term promotion of organizational and societal resilience could be achieved and outline implications for research and practice.

Different Ways of Knowing How to Coexist with Fire

Geographers are well placed to make valuable contributions to how we understand and live with fire. Knowledge production is upheld as providing the answer to the riddle of our coexistence with such perils, and yet it is marred by uncertainties, paradox and reversal. Such matters are discussed here in relation to the different ways of knowing and learning how we might coexist with fire. Concepts of bushfire risk, threat and tolerance, which are much used here, evince a slipperiness with recent histories of recalibration and nomenclatural additions. They are also deeply imbricated in the dynamic relationships linking society and environment and their messy entanglements, which are well appreciated by geographers. Likewise, the clarification of any disaster typology as definitive comes at a cost. Consider, for example, how events are often framed as ‘natural’ phenomena unfolding from ‘pre-’ to ‘postdisaster’ or reduced to precisely calculable, even if varyingly improbable, occurrences (Williams, 2008; 2012; Williams and Jacobs, 2010). Against desires for prediction and control, notions of normalcy in the world (and our knowledge of it) are necessarily now being abandoned in efforts to manage increasingly excessive disasters (Williams, 2008). Our onto-epistemological edifices are being shaken to their very foundations. This disaster is not all bad though, because we too must respond and can do so by building back better using the latest (and some not-so-new) materials and technologies. Fire research is dominated by the science of quantitative methods and modelling; data are used in audits, reviews, commissions and inquiries, and hard evidence-based policy is now very much in vogue. It is remarkable then that the centrality of myth and iconography to Australians’ relationships with bushfire has become so apparent in the responses to such recent events as the 2009 Victorian bushfires. The environmental historian Tom Griffiths (2009; 2012), for example, notes the importance of remembering, storytelling and meaning-making through art as key to Australians’ coexistence with bushfires. Old ways of knowing and living in the landscape are being lost, he suggests, but they might also be recuperated. It is through the powerful representations of individuals and communities variously hurting, surviving and flourishing (produced often in alternative, nonscientific media alongside more formal persuasion) that innovative new programmes and projects arise. We academics would do well to probe and push further what constitutes data or knowledge in climate change science, disaster management and policy development. Learning to coexist with fire requires experiential insights and embodied practices as much as any purely intellectual pursuit (Eriksen, 2014). The viscerality of affect is also significant in knowledge communication. The graphic image of Tammy Holmes and her five grandchildren sheltering in water beneath a jetty during the Tasmanian bushfires of January 2013 is exemplary. That image and accompanying text, with its depiction of humans revealed as frail creatures caught under a menacing red sky, went viral and rapidly drew international attention to the small fire-afflicted community of Dunalley. The Discussant paper contributed to ‘Coexisting with Fire’ session at IAG, Perth, 2013, prepared for Geographical Review special issue bs_bs_banner

Early warning information seeking in the 2009 Victorian Bushfires

This study examines early warning from the users' perspective as a special category of information seeking. Specifically, we look at the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia as an instructive case of early warning information seeking. The bushfires, the worst in Australia's recorded history, were unique in its ferocity and damage caused, but also in the amount of data and research that was generated. We analyzed the affected residents' information needs, seeking and use in terms of their cognitive, affective, and situational dimensions. We found that residents wanted information that would act as a “trigger for action,” provide timely warning, and indicate clearly fire severity. Nearly two thirds of residents surveyed did not receive an official warning. Almost half first found out that the bushfire was in their area through personal observation of smoke, embers, or flames. We suggest that a form of normalcy bias may have been at work during information seeking, causing people to interpret their situations as “normal” even when disaster warnings have been issued. Although the authorities had adopted a “Stay or Go” policy to help residents use warning information to decide between staying to defend their property or leaving early, the policy's effectiveness was undermined by information challenges.

‘Build back better’ principles for land-use planning

This paper examines post-disaster land-use planning practices for risk reduction using ‘build back better’ (BBB) principles. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2009 Victorian bushfires were chosen as case studies to explore to what extent BBB principles were implemented, as well as their implications and lessons learnt for future practice. Successes and challenges faced in both cases were similar, allowing the establishment of universally applicable BBB-based land-use planning recommendations. Ongoing multi-hazard assessments must be conducted and used to create risk zone maps, which should be employed to plan developments and enforce planning and building regulations. High-risk lands should be avoided for residential and commercial developments by using strategies such as buy-back schemes. Consideration of social issues and community needs must be a priority during relocation. Keeping the community informed and educated is essential. Engineers and planners should use these principles in post-disaster as well as pre-disaster periods to reduce risks and build safe communities.

Exploring Social Workers' Experiences of Working with Bushfire-affected Families

Following the devastating Victorian bushfires in February 2009, social workers engaged with people affected by this event in a variety of roles, including bushfire case manager, counsellor, and community development worker. This paper explores the experiences of social workers who worked with bushfire-affected families to understand their role and the context in which they practised. It describes the personal impact of disaster recovery work. Secondly, by drawing on the knowledge and experiences of these social workers, this investigation identified skills and personal qualities that can be used to inform the preparation and support of social workers responding in future disaster events or emergency recovery situations. The research design featured a mixed methodology that included an anonymous online survey completed by 22 participants and personal interviews with 6 social workers. Narrative data analysis was performed to identify themes. A key finding of the study was that, while social workers frequently work in contexts of uncertainty, the demands placed on practice were exacerbated by the lack of familiarity with geography, social networks, and resources, as well as by higher levels of uncertainty and lack of clarity and detail relating to the event itself.

Tenement controls in the Shire of Yarra Ranges: an assessment of the performance of a land use policy instrument

Whilst a number of statutory instruments have been designed by policy makers to address the problem of unplanned residential development in rural or environmentally sensitive areas, little academic research has been conducted on their performance within the Australian context. One such instrument is the tenement control. Tenement controls were historically used in rural and peri-urban areas of Victoria to minimise development in inappropriately subdivided areas; however, they are now only significantly used within the Shire of Yarra Ranges. Recently, there has been resurgence in interest in the control, as evidenced through its recent inclusion in the South Gippsland Planning Scheme (South Gippsland Shire Council 2010), and as a proposed means of limiting settlement in areas of high bush-fire risk during the 2009 Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission (Teague 2010, 227–228). This paper provides an empirical assessment of the performance of the tenement control in the Shire of Yarra Ranges. A major finding is that the design of the control makes administration and implementation extremely difficult and that it is inequitable in its impact upon individual landowners. It is concluded that these flaws make tenement controls ineffective as anything but a short-term ‘holding’ mechanism, pending the development of more detailed strategies.

Landscape Scale Influences of Forest Area and Housing Density on House Loss in the 2009 Victorian Bushfires

Previous investigations into the factors associated with house loss in wildfires have focused on the house construction and its immediate environment (e.g. gardens). Here, we examine how nearby native forest and other houses can influence house loss. Specifically, we used a sample of 3500 houses affected by the Victorian bushfires of February 7th 2009 to explore how the amount of forest, proportion of forest burned by crown fire and the number of nearby houses affected house loss and how far from the house this influence was exerted. These fires were the most destructive in Australian history and so represent the extreme of fire risk. Using generalized linear modeling we found that the probability of house loss increased with forest extent and the proportion burnt by crown fire and this relationship was strongest for forest measured 1 km from the houses. Houses were more likely to be destroyed if there were other houses within 50 m and if they were on a slope. A model containing these variables predicted house loss with 72% accuracy. Our findings have three important implications: i) management to change the occurrence of crown fire will be effective in reducing house loss; ii) this management may be required up to 1 km away from houses in some situations (a much larger zone than is currently used); iii) high density of houses may increase risk of loss. Given the potentially large width of this management zone and the hazard from nearby houses, it may be more sensible to concentrate on modification of buildings to reduce their vulnerability.

Build Back Better principles for post‐disaster structural improvements

PurposeThe purpose of the paper is to inform stakeholders involved in post‐disaster reconstruction how to incorporate Build Back Better (BBB) principles when implementing structural design improvements to achieve efficiency and effectiveness in the rebuilding process.Design/methodology/approachLiterature review was used to establish BBB principles required for post‐disaster structural changes. The application of these principles was then tested in the Indian Ocean Tsunami reconstruction in Sri Lanka, and the Victorian Bushfires in Australia. Qualitative data were collected in each country by conducting interviews with stakeholders from governmental authorities, and non‐governmental and community‐level organisations who were directly involved in recovery activities along with other documentation. Results were compared to understand how/to what extent BBB principles were applied and their implications, to finally determine the applicability of these principles in different environments.FindingsProposed BBB principles for post‐disaster structural changes from literature were grouped under: building codes and regulations, cost and time, and quality. Principles such as multi‐hazard‐based building codes, education and support for communities, long‐term funding and quality assurance through inspections were applicable in both case studies. Experiences in Australia and Sri Lanka also presented a few extra principles to add practicality based on local contextualisation. These included avoiding high‐risk lands using buy‐back/land‐swap schemes, incentives to attract skilled builders, and the use of comfortable temporary accommodation to relieve time pressures.Research limitations/implicationsThe study does not look into detail at the administrative, regulative and social systems which contributed towards the inability of the built environment to withstand the respective hazards. A general understanding of these systems was gained and taken into consideration when analysing the results. The findings show that despite the differences found between Australia and Sri Lanka the relevance of the principles for structural improvements remained intact.Practical implicationsThe government, engineers and building practitioners involved in reconstruction will benefit from learning from the experiences of others, and understanding how implementing structural changes can be done more successfully by applying BBB principles.Originality/valueThis research takes a unique look at how BBB principles drawn from international experiences can be incorporated when implementing structural changes in post‐disaster rebuilding to further improve the outcome.

Effects of bushfire stress on birth outcomes: A cohort study of the 2009 Victorian Black Saturday bushfires

Previous studies show that shorter gestation, lower birth-weight and fewer male births can result from maternal exposure to environmental disasters. We examined the 2009 Black Saturday fires in Victoria, Australia using a population cohort method. This study principally finds small but significant increases in pre-term birth (p=0.04) and decreases in birth-weight (p=0.001) in infants whose mothers were exposed to the fires late in the second trimester or during the third trimester. Because environmental disasters are an increasing threat and poor birth outcomes can have detrimental effects across the lifespan, understanding the relationship between environmental disasters and birth outcomes is important for future disaster policy.

Vegetation monitoring and management at Kinglake National Park following the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires

Vegetation monitoring and management at Kinglake National Park following the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires

Power line failures and catastrophic wildfires under extreme weather conditions

Catastrophic wildland fires have resulted under extreme wind conditions due to power line system failures. Under conditions of “extreme fire weather”, multiple ignitions due to power lines over a broad geographic area can occur under conditions promoting explosive fire growth. Such instances have been observed in the US state of California in 2007, and several times in recent Australian history – most notably the lethal Black Saturday fires of 2009. Ignitions can occur from a variety of failure modes in the huge array of components making up distribution and transmission networks and their neighboring environment. These failures fall into two general categories however: elastic extension of either the conductors or surrounding objects (such as tree limbs) causing electrical contact and arcing, and fatigue failures under high strain conditions affecting system components (conductors, poles, crossarms) or surrounding objects (trees). Both failure classes show a strong dependence on increasing wind speed. Case studies will be shown demonstrating both of these categories. Greatly compounding these physical wind dependencies is the expectation that failure probability will increase sharply with wind speed in an extreme value statistical dependency, such as a reverse Weibull distribution. Outage data from electric distribution systems is shown to demonstrate a very strong increase with wind speed – suggesting that outage data from normal operation of an electrical grid may be used to gauge system vulnerability to extreme fire weather conditions. These results also underline the importance of having appropriate design requirements and contingency plans to account for reasonably foreseeable catastrophic weather conditions. Mitigation measures being discussed or implemented by regulators and utilities are discussed.