Black Racial Identity Attitude Research Articles

The Mediating Role of Self-Leadership in the link between Racial Identity Attitudes, Mental Health Outcomes, and Race Related Stress

ABSTRACT Introduction: Internal Family Systems (IFS) Therapy has grown in popularity over the last several decades, demonstrating promising utility, especially in the treatment of mood disorders. However, IFS researchers have yet to explore its relevance specifically for Black populations in the United States. Objective: The present study investigated relationships between self-leadership, racial identity attitudes, race related stress, and mental health outcomes. Specifically, this study examined self-leadership as a potential mediator in the relationship between Black racial identity attitudes and the experience of race-related stress and mental health outcomes Methods: Participants (N = 79) were Black-identifying undergraduate students who completed self-report inventories. Mediation analyses were conducted using SPSS. Results: Self-leadership significantly predicted less severe negative mental health outcomes. Additionally, self-leadership fully mediated the relationship between the pre-encounter attitude of self-hatred and mental health outcomes, and self-leadership partially mediated the relationship between multiculturalist inclusive attitudes and stress due to institutional racism. Conclusion: Findings point to the potential utility of a major component of IFS, self-leadership, for future Black clinical populations.

Black Adolescent Males: Intersections Among Their Gender Role Identity and Racial Identity and Associations With Self-Concept (Global and School).

Intersectional approaches for understanding identity have gained momentum in the social sciences. Black adolescent males are often perceived as threatening, underachieving, and hypermasculine, which is reinforced through media outlets and psychological research that portray them as a monolith rather than a heterogeneous group with multiple intersecting identities. This cross-sectional study of 70 Black adolescent males between 14 and 18years old simultaneously explores their race and gender identities and associations with self-concept (global and school). Results demonstrated that participants reported a combination of feminine and masculine gender roles, rather than hypermasculine. A canonical correlation analysis found that Black racial identity attitudes (RIAS-L) and gender roles simultaneously contributed to significant relationships with total and school self-concept. Study limitations and future directions for research and practice are discussed.

Am I My Sister’s Keeper? Linking Domestic Violence Attitudes to Black Racial Identity

This exploratory online investigation sought to examine the links between African American college women’s gender role attitudes, Black racial identity attitudes, and domestic violence attitudes toward African American women in heterosexual marital relationships where domestic violence occurs ( N = 192). Less sophisticated Black racial identity attitudes (i.e., pre-encounter and immersion-emersion) predicted greater self-reports of justifying domestic violence toward African American women and believing that African American women benefit from abuse. Pre-encounter and immersion-emersion attitudes also predicted less willingness to help victims. An Afrocentric worldview (i.e., internalization Afrocentricity) was positively predictive of believing that African American women benefit from domestic violence as well as greater willingness to help victims. Appreciating one’s African American identity and other racial and ethnic groups (i.e., internalization multiculturalist inclusive) predicted less justification, fewer reports that African American women benefit from abuse, and a greater willingness to help victims. Post hoc mediation analyses revealed that gender role attitudes and an investment in protecting African American male domestic violence perpetrators (i.e., Black male victimage and justification beliefs) mediated the link between internalization Afrocentricity attitudes and the belief that African American women benefit from abuse.

African Americans and Trayvon Martin: Black Racial Identity Profiles and Emotional Responding

Public opinion polls suggest that many African Americans viewed the death of Trayvon Martin as a race-related event (Gabbidon and Jordan 2013; Pew Research Center 2013). This exploratory online investigation examined African Americans’ general reactions to the fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin as well as the link between Black racial identity cluster profiles and race-related stress reactions (i.e., anger and sense of safety). Participants had a range of reactions, including questioning whether the shooting was racially motivated as well as self-reporting anger and sadness. Three Black racial identity profile groups were identified. Profile group 1 consisted of individuals with each of the different Black racial identity attitude types being below the mean (i.e., undifferentiated). Group 2 consisted of individuals with lower levels of centrality and nationalist ideologies with all other racial identity types being above the mean (i.e., integrationist). Finally, group 3 consisted of individuals with a positive African American identity as indicated by greater levels of centrality, private regard, and nationalist ideology (i.e., race focused). Only their public regard, assimilationist and humanist ideology attitudes fell below the mean. Further analysis indicated that individuals with a race focused Black racial identity cluster profile specifically self-reported higher levels of anger and were more likely to indicate feeling unsafe after learning about Trayvon Martin’s death.

The Influence of Black Racial Identity on the Forgiveness of Whites

Forgiving a group of individuals for past transgressions instead of a single individual has only recently garnered research attention. The present study was designed to determine the association between Black racial identity attitudes and the forgiveness of Whites. An intergroup forgiveness instrument developed to assess forgiveness between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland was adapted to assess racial forgiveness. Results were generally consistent with our predictions. The Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive identity scale predicted both Future and Never Forgiving. However, the Immersion-Emersion Anti-White and Internalization Afrocentric scale predicted Never Forgiving but not Future Forgiving. Dispositional forgiveness and personality features were found to be associated with intergroup forgiveness. Research in racial intergroup forgiveness may have implications for areas such as race relations and public policy.

Reexamining the relationships between racial identity, cultural mistrust, help-seeking attitudes, and preference for a Black counselor.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which Black racial identity attitudes, cultural mistrust, and help-seeking attitudes predicted preference for a Black counselor in a sample of 168 African American adults. Participants were recruited from college and community settings in an urban, southern location in the United States. Participants completed 4 self-report measures: the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000), the Cultural Mistrust Inventory (F. Terrell & S. Terrell, 1981), the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help―Short Form (E. H. Fischer & A. Farina, 1995), and a modified version of the Counselor Preference Scale (T. A. Parham & J. E. Helms, 1981). Multiple regression analyses revealed that racial identity, cultural mistrust, and help-seeking attitudes significantly predicted preference for a Black counselor. Elevated cultural mistrust attitudes, low assimilation attitudes, and strong internalized Afrocentric attitudes significantly and uniquely predicted participants' preference for a Black counselor. The results are discussed with respect to individual differences within groups. Implications for counselors and counseling center directors regarding counselor-client race matching are discussed.

Shades of Threat: Racial Identity as a Moderator of Stereotype Threat

This study investigated Black racial identity attitudes as a moderator of intellectual performance in potentially stereotype threatening situations. Ninety-eight African American students were randomly assigned to one of three stereotype threatening conditions: low threat, medium threat, or high threat. Analyses confirmed a stereotype threat effect with participants performing significantly better on the task in the low threat condition. Additional analyses of the test takers’ racial identity profiles under high and low threat conditions revealed a significant interaction between Internalization status attitudes and the type of threat condition. In the low stereotype threat condition, Internalization status attitudes moderated performance on the intellectual task (i.e., items from the verbal section of the GRE). In this condition, after controlling for SAT verbal score, students who strongly endorsed Internalization racial identity attitudes correctly solved more items than students who did not identify as strongly with Internalization status attitudes. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The Relation of Ethnic Identity, Racial Identity, and Race-Related Stress Among African American College Students

The purpose of this study was to explore to what extent ethnic identity and racial identity are related constructs among African American college students by examining (a) the association of racial identity to ethnic identity and (b) the relative and unique contribution of both constructs to race-related stress. Participants were 140 college African American college students (about 70% females) enrolled in two universities in a major city in the Southwest United States. Participants age ranged from 17 to 58 years (M�=�24, SD�=�6.8). In terms of educational level, 10% of the students were freshmen, 17% sophomores, 24% juniors, 19% seniors, 21% graduate students, and 9% did not indicate their year in school. The following assessment instruments were used: Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIS-B) (Parham & Helms, 1081), the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Scale (MEIM) (Phinney, 1992), and the Index of Race-Related Stress, Brief version (IRRS-B) (Utsey, 1999). Endorsement of preencounter racial attitudes was negatively related to ethnic identity achievement, whereas endorsement of internalization racial attitudes was positively related to ethnic identity. Results also indicated that racial identity attitudes were related to the stress associated with experiences of racism at the cultural and individual level, whereas ethnic identity was not associated to race-related stress. Ethnic identity did not moderate the relation of racial identity to race-related stress.

Black Adolescent Girls: Do Gender Role and Racial Identity: Impact Their Self-Esteem?

This study was designed to explore Black adolescent girls' gender roles, racial identity, and self-esteem. These variables have not been examined together in a study of Black girls, yet studies of girls from other racial/cultural groups have demonstrated significant relationships. This type of exploration is important because Black girls do not experience the same declines in self-esteem as girls from other racial/cultural groups. Gender role orientation and racial identity have been put forth as possible explanations for Black girls' bolstered levels of self-esteem. Results indicated that Black girls with androgynous and masculine characteristics reported high levels of self-esteem. The results also indicated that Black girls with internally defined Black racial identity attitudes reported high levels of domain-specific self-esteem. In addition, androgyny was associated with high scores on internalization (Black racial identity).

Racial(ized) Identity, Ethnic Identity, and Afrocentric Values: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges in Understanding African American Identity.

A survey of the literature reveals that there is conceptual confusion and inconsistent and sometimes inappropriate usage of the terms racial identity, ethnic identity, and Afrocentric values. This study explored the extent to which Black racial(ized) identity attitudes were related to ethnic identity and Afrocentric cultural values. Two hundred and one African American college students attending a predominantly White university or a historically Black university completed the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000), the Nadanolitization Scale (J. Taylor & C. Grundy, 1996), the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (J. S. Phinney, 1992), and the Africentrism Scale (C. Grills & D. Longshore, 1996). Results of a canonical correlation indicated 2 significant orthogonal roots that were labeled a nonracialized ethnic identity and a racialized ethnic identity. The results suggest important similarities and differences among the various identity constructs. Implications for racial and ethnic identity research and Afrocentric research are discussed.

Examining racial identity statuses as predictors of psychological defenses in African American college students.

The authors examined the relationship between racial identity statuses and the use of psychological defenses in 80 African American college students who completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1996), Defense Mechanism Inventory (G. C. Gleser & D. Ihilevich, 1969), and the Defense Style Questionnaire-40 (G. Andrews, M. Singh, & M. Bond, 1993). The canonical analysis indicated that pre-encounter and encounter ego statuses were positively related to neurotic psychological defenses as well as defenses of principalization and reversal. The immersion ego status was positively related to immature psychological defenses as well as turning against object and projection. The emersion ego status was positively related to mature psychological defenses as well as turning against object and projection. The authors believe these results provide additional support for J. E. Helms's (1995) racial identity model, because racial identity ego statuses predicted how African Americans managed painful affect. The discussion also focuses on implications of these results for counseling and future research.

Social Identity and Preferred Ethnic/Racial Labels for Blacks in Canada

A number of studies conducted in the United States have found that Black and African American are the preferred labels for ethnic/racial self-designation by Blacks. The purpose of this study was to assess which labels were preferred (and disliked) by a sample of Black Canadian students (N = 101), as well as to uncover the personal meanings of their preferred labels. In addition, the relationships between label preferences and measures of ethnic/racial identity developed in America (African Self-Consciousness Scale, Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale) and Canada (York Ethnic Identification Scale) were examined. Although Black was the most preferred label, the following four types of preferred labels were identified: Black, Africentric, Caribbean, and Canadian. Different label preferences were associated with different measures of social identity. Issues of social identity and ethnic/racial self-designation for Blacks in Canada are discussed.

African American Acculturation and Black Racial Identity: A Preliminary Investigation

This exploratory study examined the relationship between acculturation and racial identity among African Americans. One hundred eighty‐seven African American students completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. F. Helms & T. A. Parham, 1990) and the African American Acculturation Scale (AAAS; H. Landrine & E. Klonoff, 1995). Acculturation was associated with 3 of the 5 AAAS subscales: Dissonance, Immersion, and Emersion; Immersion had the greatest correlation with acculturation. A simultaneous regression analysis showed that the Pre‐Encounter subscale was a significant predictor of acculturation.

Relations Among Racial Identity Attitudes, Perceived Stressors, and Coping Styles in African American College Students

This study expanded on previous research with African American college students at predominantly White institutions by examining the theoretically relevant but unexplored relations among racial identity attitudes and (a) both general and culture‐specific stressors and (b) problem‐focused coping styles. Ninety African American college students at a predominantly White university completed the Black Racial Identity Attitudes Scale, Black Student Stress Inventory, Problem Solving Inventory, and Problem‐Focused Style of Coping Scale. A series of multivariate regression analyses revealed that specific racial identity attitudes were statistically significant predictors of both general and culture‐specific stressors. In addition, one racial identity attitude status (immersion/emersion) was a unique predictor of general perceived stressors and problem solving. Results suggest the importance of racial identity schemata as a critical factor in predicting stress and coping responses of African American students at predominantly White institutions. The findings also underscore the utility in distinguishing between general and culture‐specific stressors, which traditionally have been ignored in the psychological literature.

Black Racial Identity and Psychosocial Competence: A Preliminary Study

This study investigated whether Black racial identity attitudes predict psychosocial competence as defined by Tyler's tridimensional model. In particular, two aspects of Tyler's model of psychosocial competence were examined: self-attitudes and behavioral attitudes. Participants in this study were 103 (65 females, 38 males) Black undergraduates who completed the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale, the Behavioral Attributes of Psychosocial Competence Scale, and Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale. The study found gender differences in racial identity attitudes for the sample. However, multiple regression analyses found that Black racial identity attitudes are not associated with one's sense of psychosocial competence. Although the results were not significant, analyses of individual / weights within the regression equations suggested that the influence of racial identity attitudes on psychosocial competence may operate differently for men and women.

At the Crossroads: Racial and Womanist Identity Development in Black and White Women

This study explored the hypothesis that womanist identity and racial identity development are related. The racial identiy and womanist identity attitudes of 214 women were measured using the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale, the White Racial Identity Attitude Scales (WRIAS), and the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale. Canonical correlation analysis was used to determine the nature of relationships among racial identity and womanist identity attitudes. Results showed that for Black women there was a significant relation between racial identity and womanist identity attitudes. Specifically, Internalization attitudes on the WRIAS were positively related to Level II (Encounter) and Level IV (Internalization) attitudes on the Womanist Identity Attitude Scale. Despite a larger number of White participants, no such relationship emerged for White women. Implications for theory, research, and counseling are discussed.

Black Racial Identity Attitudes and Stages of the Life Span: An Exploratory Investigation

This article explores the construction of Black racial identity attitudes during three stages of the life span. Participants were 476 African Americans between the ages of 14 and 59. Each completed the Racial Identity Attitude Scale-B (RIAS-B) and a demographic survey. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed pattern differences across age groups, with the young adulthood stage differing from adolescence and middle adulthood. A correlation analysis revealed that the older the respondents were, the less likely they were to endorse immersion attitudes (strong attachment to Black culture and its expression). Adolescents reported predominantly internalization attitudes (racial expressions of comfort) mirroring almost exactly the middle-adulthood group. Young adults reportedpredominantly encounterattitudes (experiencing a critical incident regarding race). These findings point to the imperative needfor longitudinal racial identity studies and contemporary measurements of racial identity attitudes. Heterogeneity in expression of Black racial identity attitudes is emphasized, andaprocess-oriented approach to multicultural training is recommended.

African American men's Gender Role Conflict: The significance of racial identity

This study examined the relationships between racial identity attitudes and gender role conflict in a sample of 95 African American men ages 23–80 years old. Participants completed the 1981 Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale by Parham and Helms and the 1986 Gender Role Conflict Scale by O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, and Wrightsman. Results indicated that racial identity attitudes were differentially related to patterns of gender role conflict when racial identity is externally defined. However, an internally defined racial identity had no relationship to gender role conflict. Results are discussed in terms of the significance of racial identity for understanding African American men's conflict associated with traditional male gender role standards and expectations.

Patterns of Racial Identity Development of African American Adolescent Males and Females

This study examines the patterns of racial identity expression for 174 African American adolescent females and 111 African American adolescent males between the ages of 14 and 18. Participants were given the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B) as an assessment of attitudes that characterize self-concept issues concerning race. It was predicted that African American adolescents would predominantly endorse internalization attitudes, and endorse pre-encounter attitudes the least. It was further predicted that there would be a difference in pattern expression for males and females. Results revealed that African American adolescents widely endorsed internalization attitudes that represent a healthy, self-defined racial transcendence. African American adoles-centfemales endorsed significantly less pre-encounter attitudes (prediscovery of racial identity) than their male counterparts. Racial identity development as part of the global search for identity of adolescence and the present limitations in measuring adolescent racial identity attitudes are discussed.

A Psychometric Investigation of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Form B

This study involved an examination of the psychometric properties of the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Form B through item, subscale, and factor analyses. Factor analytic support was found for the Preencounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Internalization subscales. No support was found for an Encounter subscale. However, the factor analysis accounted for a small amount of variance, which, coupled with a finding of marginal internal consistencies, suggests little common variance among the items for the RIAS. Version A and Version B scoring showed little correspondence for some subscales, suggesting the earlier and later scoring versions cannot be considered interchangeable. The Preencounter and Internalization subscales showed highly skewed distributions for a number of items and for subscale scores. The implications of these results for previous and future research using the scale are discussed.