Black Mothers Research Articles

“My Anxiety Has Been Heightened”: Black Mothers’ Concerns Regarding Children’s Return to In-person Learning Following COVID-19-Related Remote Learning

Black mothers experienced heightened concern about their children returning to in-person learning following COVID-19 related remote learning. Guided by critical race theory and racial protectionism, we sought to deepen our understanding of Black mothers’ concerns and experiences related to their preschoolers’ return to in-person learning during the 2021 to 2022 academic school year. We conducted five focus groups. Eighteen Black mothers (mean age = 32.90 years) of children enrolled in prekindergarten in the recently ended school year participated in a focus group with an average of 4 participants per focus group. Using reflexive thematic analysis, researchers generated the following themes: children contracting COVID-19, classroom closures and instructional concerns, bullying from other students, and school shootings. Study findings provide insight into Black mothers’ protectionism and concerns about educational systems, emphasizing the need to address health and physical safety concerns in early childhood settings to reduce educational disparities.

Examining fairness in machine learning applied to support families: A case study of preventive services

AbstractObjectiveTo evaluate the fairness of a machine learning (ML) model designed to assess the need for home visiting services, focusing on its performance across family characteristics.BackgroundML models are increasingly used in family‐centered services; however, their fairness remains underexplored, particularly concerning family sociodemographic factors and service contexts.MethodsThis study assessed the fairness of an ML model developed for home visiting services examining false negative rates (FNRs) across subgroups, particularly focusing on the intersection of maternal ethnicity and nativity.ResultsThe ML model reduced FNRs from 52.9% to 22.1%, with the most notable improvements for children of Black mothers and with family characteristics associated with high risk. However, the model was less effective for children of Asian and foreign‐born Hispanic mothers.ConclusionAlthough the ML model substantially reduced FNRs across various family subgroups, disparities were observed.ImplicationsUnderstanding fairness in ML models requires a thoughtful approach, considering service context and impact on the families from diverse backgrounds. Continued research and collaboration are necessary for fair and inclusive use of ML models for family‐centered services.

Elevating Voices of Black Single Mothers and Their Adolescent Daughters: Strengthening Mother-daughter Program Retention and Satisfaction

Elevating Voices of Black Single Mothers and Their Adolescent Daughters: Strengthening Mother-daughter Program Retention and Satisfaction

A laying on of hands: reading afrodiasporic spirituality, matrilineage & collectivism in lemonade

ABSTRACT Lemonade (2016) is a genre-blending text that imports cultural and fantastical devices in order to revise, interrogate, and re-examine history–specifically, the traumas inherited from enslavement. In its analysis of history, Lemonade immortalizes Afrodiasporic spiritual practices and enshrines Black women-healers and magic-users as folk heroes. This work advances that the Afrodiasporic spiritual practices and gynocentric connections are used to form Black female collectives. It draws largely on Black and Africana feminist and womanist scholarship to frame an expanded discussion of spirituality and Black motherhood in the American South, and to demonstrate how collectives–sacred, transhistorical communities–are critical to Black female healing. It contextualizes Lemonade’s “chapters,” visuals, and wider narrative, and it examines the Southern psychic and epistemological resources that Beyoncé, as protagonist, consults. In doing so, this work ultimately intends to create new intellectual space for readers to revisit questions of collectivity in Lemonade and consider the indispensability of community for Black women and girls.

The Role of Baby-Friendly Designated Hospitals in Breastfeeding Initiation Across Racial/Ethnic Groups in Florida.

Baby-Friendly Hospitals (BFH) in the United States (U.S.) are associated with higher breastfeeding initiation rates. Breastfeeding is associated with a myriad of favorable health outcomes for both mother and child. However, few studies have examined the impact of breastfeeding support resources, like BFH, on breastfeeding initiation among minority groups. The objective of this study is to evaluate the association between birth at a BFH and the breastfeeding initiation in Florida. A retrospective exploratory analysis of BFH and birth certificate data (n=3,321,022 ) from 2004-2022 from Florida was conducted. A logistic regression model was fit to examine the main and interaction effects of race/ethnicity and birth at a BFH on breastfeeding initiation. Time was included as a sequential variable to adjust for temporal effects. Covariates known to impact breastfeeding initiation rates, including maternal education and prenatal care utilization, were included in multivariate analyses. Of births at a BFH, 89% of mothers initiated breastfeeding. Comparatively, of the births at a non-BFH, 84% of mothers initiated breastfeeding. Giving birth at a BFH increased the odds of breastfeeding initiation by at least 42% (OR = 1.42, CI: 1.38-1.45, p <0.001, Hispanic White mothers) in unadjusted models and 10% (OR = 1.10, CI: 1.03-1.17, p = 0.004, other non-Hispanic mothers) in adjusted models. However, BFH may have differential effects by maternal race and ethnicity. In the multivariate model adjusting for relevant covariates, non-Hispanic Black mothers who gave birth at a BFH were 27% less likely to initiate breastfeeding compared to mothers that gave birth at a non-BFH (OR = 0.73, CI: 0.61- 0.88, p < 0.001; interaction term for BFH*maternal race/ethnicity). Similar trends were observed for Hispanic Black, Hispanic White, and other non-Hispanic mothers. Giving birth at a BFH is associated with greater odds of breastfeeding initiation. However, when considering the race and ethnicity of mothers, these odds significantly decline, indicating a need to further explore the barriers that may preclude non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic moms from receiving the same benefits of BFH.

The Maternal Body, HIV and Race: Dual Raced and Ambivalent Maternal Experiences in a Vertically Infected HIV-Positive Adolescent

The HIV pandemic in South Africa has tragically left a wake of vertically infected children who have suffered parental loss and social marginalization. Vertically infected HIV-positive children are those who have acquired the virus from their mother during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. In this paper, the development and alienation of the self is explored in a psychoanalytically informed research case study of a black adolescent girl who was vertically infected with HIV and later fostered by a white mother. This case study explores the sociogenic meanings of raced maternal experiences and disease identified in a series of psychoanalytic interviews, using interpretive phenomenological analysis. Drawing from Melanie Klein, Franz Fanon and other feminist and post-colonial psychoanalytic theorists, the early primal raced and diseased scene is considered through internalizations and fixation on the body. Nosipho is first introduced through a short vignette and a discussion of her early maternal relational experiences. The paper then explores the ambivalence experienced by the participant as part of her HIV and raced lived experiences. HIV and raced subjectivities are both powerful internalized conscious as well as unconscious embodied experiences. For Nosipho, it has been a complicated process found in the shared dual mothering experiences between a biological mother who is black and the subsequent white maternal experiences. The interrogation of this embodied dual experiences of having black mothers who are HIV-positive whilst simultaneously having white mothering roles in children who are vertically infected with HIV is a terrain that is infused by deep contradictory and conflicting emotional and affective states around love and hate, joy and despair, fear, and hope, all at once. Consequently, holding both the HIV and the raced subjectivities is deeply painful for black children who are vertically infected with HIV.

Exploring Factors Affecting Breastfeeding: Insights From Hispanic and Black Mothers and Healthcare Providers in El Paso, Texas

Objective:Breastfeeding has been shown to have many health benefits to both the infant and the mother. However, there are racial and ethnic disparities in breastfeeding rates across all U.S. states and territories. This study sought to understand the support needed to improve breastfeeding rates and address disparities in El Paso County, Texas using the socioecological model framework for analysis.Methods:We conducted focus groups involving 16 Hispanic and Black mothers. During these sessions, we asked them about the environmental and social factors that influenced their decisions to either start or stop breastfeeding. Additionally, we interviewed six health professionals to gain insights into the support activities they provide to breastfeeding women and identify potential gaps in care.Results:The study found several themes that align with prior research on breastfeeding support: (a) Breastfeeding is recognized as being healthy, but misconceptions exist about formula. (b) Some mothers find public breastfeeding or pumping inappropriate, but opinions vary. (c) Family members significantly influence the decision to breastfeed; their support varies. (d) Although aid from healthcare professionals (HCPs) in breastfeeding is appreciated and valued, it is not always available. (e) HCPs are not uniformly perceived as knowledgeable or helpful, occasionally providing conflicting information. (f) Prenatal classes featuring breastfeeding are appreciated, but the depth of information provided varies. (g) Women seek increased postdischarge support from hospitals. (h) The transition back to work introduces various challenges. (i) Community norms and attitudes toward breastfeeding can be unsupportive. (j) Demand exists for updated, accessible local breastfeeding resources. (k) The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children is valued, but there is confusion about services and eligibility requirements. (l) Undocumented immigrants might hesitate to access public services due to concerns about their status.Conclusions:Breastfeeding support programs should take into account the cultural context, the influence of healthcare providers, and the availability of community support. Addressing these aspects can be key to promoting breastfeeding and reducing disparities in breastfeeding rates.

Spatial and Racial/Ethnic Variation in the Prevalence of Cesarean Delivery in a South Carolina Medical Center.

While racial/ethnic disparities in cesarean delivery have been noted in the literature, less is known about the intersection between individual-level race/ethnicity and community-level social vulnerability as factors in cesarean delivery. The goal was to use medical record data from a large medical center combined with census tract-level data to examine patterns of social vulnerability, racial population distribution, and prevalence of cesarean delivery. Data were obtained from electronic medical records of patients from a large medical center in South Carolina from 2019 to 2020. The outcome variable was cesarean delivery (yes/no), and covariates included the year of delivery; age of patient; race/ethnicity; spoken language; BMI categories; clinical indications of anemia, hypertension, preeclampsia, and diabetes; and census tract Social Vulnerability Index (SVI). Generalized linear mixed models for multilevel binary logistic regression were used to test the main hypothesis that the census tract level Social Vulnerability Index is positively associated with cesarean delivery. Among a total of 5011 patients, we found that non-Hispanic Black mothers were more likely to have cesarean deliveries compared with non-Hispanic White mothers. After controlling for census tract-level SVI, the individual-level race/ethnicity association was no longer significant. Significant spatial autocorrelation across census tracts was evident for cesarean delivery prevalence, non-Hispanic Black population, and SVI. A high prevalence of cesarean delivery tended to cluster with high SVI and a high non-Hispanic Black population. We found that non-Hispanic Black mothers were more likely to have cesarean deliveries, which was explained by census tract differences in the SVI.

Social workers’ perspectives on anti-Black racism and parenting outcomes for incarcerated pregnant women with substance use histories

Summary Black women who use substances face significant barriers to accessing resources and parenting their children, largely as a result of interactions with the criminal legal, child welfare, and healthcare systems. While extensive literature has demonstrated how structural racism and punitive policy approaches underpin the operation and impact of these systems, minimal attention has been paid to how social workers approach child, maternal, and family well-being when interacting with clients who use substances and have been incarcerated. To address this gap, we conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with 19 social workers practicing in jail/prison, community, and hospital settings across the United States. Findings Interviews identified the cyclical and intergenerational nature of harms perpetuated through criminal legal, child welfare, and healthcare systems. Participants described structural racism, inadequate resources (i.e., housing), and previous criminal legal and child welfare involvement as compounding barriers to an individual’s ability to parent and maintain recovery, particularly among Black families. Participants described the pervasiveness of structural racism but did not perceive themselves as active participants in perpetuating racist and oppressive structures. Applications Social workers engage with Black pregnant women who use substances across diverse practice settings and as such have the potential to both contribute to systemic harms and to champion interventions that target the root causes of inequity. Study findings support structural interventions that dismantle punitive systems and re-center the needs of Black communities, thereby supporting Black mothers in their fundamental right to parent their children.

State Social Expenditures and Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight in the US

Adverse birth outcomes in the US, including preterm birth and low birth weight, are strongly tied to socioeconomic disadvantage and disproportionately impact infants of Black mothers. Increasing investments in social programs represents a potential policy approach to addressing disparities in birth outcomes. To examine state-level associations of government expenditures on social programs with rates of preterm birth and low birth weight both overall and by race. This cross-sectional, ecological study was conducted among liveborn infants in the 50 US states between January 1, 2011, and December 31, 2019. Data analysis was performed from May 2022 to May 2024. Yearly state and local government expenditures per low-income person on social programs in the following categories: state refundable Earned Income Tax Credit; cash assistance; childcare assistance; housing and community development; and public health. Yearly state-level rates of preterm birth (gestational age <37 weeks) and low birth weight (<2500 g). From January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2019, there were 35.1 million live births in the US, of which 3.4 million (9.8%) were preterm and 2.8 million (8.1%) were low birth weight. Median (IQR) state social expenditures per low-income person were $1546 ($1074-$2323). Greater total state social expenditures were associated with lower overall rates of preterm birth (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] for every increase of $1000 per low-income person, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.97-0.999) but not with overall rates of low birth weight. In secondary analyses, greater state social expenditures were associated with lower preterm birth rates for infants of Black mothers (aPR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.92-0.999). Greater state expenditures specifically on cash assistance (aPR, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.43-0.94) and housing and community development (aPR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.84-0.98) were associated with lower preterm birth rates for infants of Black mothers. In this cross-sectional, ecological study, greater state-level expenditures on social programs were associated with reduced rates of preterm birth, particularly for infants of Black mothers. State and local governments may consider bolstering investments in cash assistance and housing and community development to address maternal and infant health disparities.

A Pilot Study Exploring the Feasibility of Virtual Written Exposure Therapy with Underserved Black Perinatal Women.

In the USA, Black pregnant women are at the highest risk for maternal morbidity. They also experience the highest rates of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD takes a toll on Black women's mental and physical health, placing them at risk for maternal morbidity. It increases several mental health symptoms such as suicidality, anxiety, re-living the trauma, and numbness. These mental health conditions adversely affect health behaviors, including those essential for maternal health, such as attending prenatal and postpartum appointments. Furthermore, untreated PTSD is associated with higher blood pressure, increasing Black mothers' risk of pre-eclampsia. For a variety of reasons including cultural mistrust, stigma, transportation, time constraints, and access to care, PTSD is frequently underassessed and undertreated among Black perinatal women. Written exposure therapy (WET) is a state-of-the-art brief treatment for PTSD. In this study, we explored the initial feasibility of the virtual delivery of WET to reduce PTSD symptoms among Black perinatal women. Results found the virtual delivery of WET to be feasible. Symptom reduction for PTSD in participants was 50-100% during follow-up, suggesting potential effectiveness of the intervention. Implications for virtual delivery of WET in reducing risk for Black maternal morbidity are discussed.

Driven by Purpose: Exploring Spirituality in Black Mothers’ Coping with Loss of Children to Gun Homicide

The death of a Black child to gun homicide presents unique and ongoing coping challenges for Black parents. Current studies have provided insights into the role of spirituality in facilitating adjustment after homicide loss. However, the extent to which spirituality serves as a viable coping resource for Black mothers, who are disproportionately affected by gun homicide deaths of their children, remains unexplored. This exploratory phenomenological study explored the role of spirituality as a healing resource in 15 Black mothers’ grief experiences following the loss of their children to gun homicide. Thematic analysis revealed the role of spirituality in helping Black mothers find purpose in their loss. Following the loss of their children, mothers’ spiritual values enabled them to come to the realization that the deaths served a purpose. Spirituality served as the fuel to strengthen and renew their purpose in their grief journey. Gun homicide grief experience is an entanglement of systemic inequality and racial oppression. Exploring spirituality as a coping resource in the grieving experiences of Black survivors serves as an opportunity for enhancing community-based, culturally relevant, and spiritually-informed interventions, to adequately meet their coping needs.

Barriers and facilitators to healthy eating during post-partum among non-Hispanic Black mothers.

Maternal diet is a key predictor of child diet, yet an in-depth inquiry into the barriers and facilitators for the adoption of healthy eating behaviours during the post-partum period is lacking, specifically for non-Hispanic Black mothers. This study used qualitative research methods to investigate healthy eating practices among a sample of non-Hispanic Black mothers participating in a family-based obesity prevention intervention. In-depth interviews were conducted with 22 mothers who participated in the Mothers and Others: Family-based Obesity Prevention for Infants and Toddlers intervention trial. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. A deductive and inductive process was used to develop a consensus codebook; once the data were coded, matrices were developed to explore the data and identify similarities and differences between respondents. Relevant themes were identified, and salient quotes were used to illustrate each theme. Mothers believed that time and taste were significant barriers to eating healthy. Social influence and social support had both positive and negative influences on mothers' ability to adopt healthy eating behaviours. Despite their children often being a facilitator to healthy eating, many mothers struggled with finding the time, energy and desire to focus on themselves when it came to healthy eating. Many mothers were intent on preparing healthy meals and snacks for their children but did not prepare them for themselves. Future interventions should focus on the importance of role-modelling healthy eating behaviours for their children and include behaviour change strategies that incorporate skill-building activities emphasizing time-saving methods for planning and preparing healthy meals and snacks for the whole family to eat.

Caregiver Perspectives on Improving Government Nutrition Benefit Programs.

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provide essential nutrition support for low-income families. However, many eligible families do not receive or fully redeem these benefits. We aimed to understand current and former WIC and SNAP beneficiaries' perceptions of and suggestions for improving both programs. We conducted semistructured phone interviews with caregivers of pediatric patients who were current or former WIC and SNAP beneficiaries at 2 academic pediatric primary care clinics. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded by 2 independent coders using thematic analysis, resolving discrepancies by consensus. Interviews continued until data saturation was reached. We interviewed 40 caregivers who were predominantly Black (88%) mothers (90%), with 53% and 83% currently using WIC and SNAP, respectively. We identified 4 themes related to participation barriers: (1) limited product variety available through WIC, (2) inconvenience and stigma associated with purchasing WIC products, (3) SNAP income-based eligibility criteria, and (4) burdensome SNAP enrollment and recertification processes. We identified 3 themes related to suggestions for improvement: (a) decreasing stigma associated with participation, (b) allowing online or phone-based enrollment, and (c) improving coordination with health care systems. WIC and SNAP beneficiaries identified several modifiable barriers to enrollment and benefits redemption. Pediatric providers should advocate for programmatic improvements that make it easier for families to access and redeem benefits and should consider implementing innovative cross-sector interventions like medical-financial partnerships, direct WIC and SNAP referrals, and data sharing with government assistance offices.

Time and Flesh: Exploring the Embodied Experiences of Black Mothers.

Drawing on Black feminist theories of intersectionality and concepts of temporality and embodiment, this study centers Black girlhood to understand Black girls embodied journeys of "becoming" Black women. Findings revealed that: (a) Black girls often have complicated histories that lead to constrained and liberatory choices in adulthood and motherhood; (b) becoming a Black woman involves continual adaptations to temporal and historical contexts; and (c) Black motherhood is a contested space, deeply shaped by remembering Black girlhood and navigating maternal responses to legacies of harm. This study highlights the challenges and strengths in the transitory states of Black womanhood.

Black Mothers of Children With and Without ADHD: Relationships Among Maternal Psychopathology, Parenting Stress, and Parenting Cognitions.

Parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) endorse increased parenting stress and lower levels of parenting efficacy and satisfaction as compared to parents of children without ADHD. Additionally, maternal ADHD and depression differentiate children with and without ADHD, with children with ADHD being more likely to have a mother with psychopathology. With a focus on an understudied population, we investigated the extent to which maternal self-reported ADHD and depression were associated with self-reported parenting stress and parenting cognitions in 70 Black mothers of children with (maternal Mage = 35.52, SD = 6.49) and without ADHD (maternal Mage = 35.39, SD = 6.53) recruited from a metropolitan area in the southeastern United States. Analyses indicated that Black mothers of children with ADHD reported higher levels of parenting stress, lower levels of parenting efficacy, and lower levels of parenting satisfaction. However, there were no significant differences between groups on measures of maternal ADHD or depression. Maternal depression significantly accounted for variability in both parenting satisfaction and parenting stress beyond child ADHD and maternal education. With maternal depression in the models, the association between maternal ADHD and parenting stress and parenting satisfaction lost significance. Given the racial disparities in the treatment of ADHD, future research should focus on investigating the linkages between maternal depression, parenting stress, parenting satisfaction, and parenting behaviors in Black mothers in order to delineate whether there are cultural adaptations that may improve treatment utilization rates for child ADHD within this population.

Carceral Logics in Benevolent Places: How Institutions of Care Criminalize Justice-Involved Black Mothers

Carceral Logics in Benevolent Places: How Institutions of Care Criminalize Justice-Involved Black Mothers

Returning to Motherhood: Post-Incarceration Reintegration and Mothering for Justice-Involved Black Women

Feminist criminologists have centralized gender’s importance in studying justice-involved women’s lives, but understanding how socio-cultural expectations and racialized constructions of motherhood affect post-incarceration reintegration is lacking. Extant research overlooks the consequences of incarceration for poor, Black mothers. To rectify this gap, this paper uses qualitative data collected from semi-structured interviews and participant observation with 12 formerly incarcerated Black mothers residing in a large urban city in the midwestern United States. This article fills this gap by using an intersectional framework to illuminate the conflicts between their lived experience as women with criminalized social identities and the societal expectations placed upon them as women and mothers. Findings reveal that post-incarceration reintegration reintroduces stressors associated with mothering while also magnifying the effects of criminalization, punishment, and resource constraints for justice-involved women and mothers.

Declines in Triplet and Higher-order Multiple Births in the United States, 1998-2023.

This report explores changes in the overall rate of triplet and higher-order births from 1998 to 2023 by detailed plurality, maternal race and Hispanic origin, and age. Data are from the National Vital Statistics System birth files. Triplet and higher-order birth rates (number of triplet and higher-order births per 100,000 births) from 1998 to 2023 are presented. Also presented are the number of triplet, triplet and higher-order, and quadruplet and higher-order births, and triplet and higher-order multiple birth rates by maternal race and Hispanic origin and maternal age for 1998, 2009, and 2023. From 1998 to 2023, the triplet and higher-order multiple birth rate declined 62%, from 193.5 per 100,000 total births to 73.8; the largest declines were from 2009 to 2023. The number of triplet and higher-order births declined from 7,625 to 2,653. Declines in triplet and higher-order birth rates were observed for White non-Hispanic (71%) and Hispanic (25%) mothers, while the rate for Black non-Hispanic mothers increased (25%). Triplet and higher-order birth rates declined for all age groups 20 and older from 1998 to 2023, and the largest declines were for mothers age 30 and older.

Daring to Be a Mother: A Case Study on Being Black, Being Pregnant, and Being a STEM Doctoral Student

This singular holistic case study examined the experience of a Black pregnant mother pursuing doctoral studies in a science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) field at a predominantly white flagship institution in the southern United States. We employed the tenets of critical race feminism in this study to demonstrate the ways in which structural racism and pervasive gender stereotypes, specifically as they relate to Black women, present obstacles to successful completion of doctoral STEM studies. We narrate her story to highlight the insight inherent within her intersecting identities that challenges dominant narratives about a Black pregnant doctoral student. In bringing to the fore four themes surfaced: the triple consciousness of layered Blackness, the pregnant Black tax, Chemical imbalance: mapping a white man’s reality onto a Black mother’s body, and internal struggles and the complex intra-actions that birthed them – we present a counternarrative to the dominant white-male centred STEM discourse that permeates the field. We conclude by extrapolating, from this case, considerations for faculty and institutions to understand better and act to comprehensively support Black students, in general, and Black mothers.