Black Male Athletes Research Articles

Black male college athletes’ self-schemata and (Un)critical consciousness

ABSTRACT Extant literature on the experiences of Black male college athletes focuses on outcomes, such as their college engagement (academic, athletic, and social), graduation rates, and post-college transitions. However, there is a lack of focus on the antecedents of these outcomes. This article offers empirical findings from a study of 16 Black male college athletes’ developmental experiences at Division I historically white institutions. The study employed a constructivist grounded theory methodology and incorporated a three-stage coding analysis to make sense of data. A key finding from this study is the identification of the (Sub)Conscious Decision-Making Filter, which is comprised of the following four components: (a) Self-Schemata; (b) Critical Racial Consciousness; (c) Social Associations Related to Racial, Athletic, and Student Identities; and (d) Internal Conflict. Data analysis offers insights into the meaning-making processes of Black male college athletes as they exist in majority white spaces, which is vital for sport administrators who seek to support the optimal holistic development of this important stakeholder group.

On your mark, get set, go: The athletic recruitment and postsecondary experiences of Black male college athletes formerly in foster care

This counter-narrative qualitative study examined the athletic recruitment and postsecondary experiences (i.e., college transition and navigation) of three Black male college track and field athletes formerly in foster care. This article uses Schlossberg’s transition theory to deliver a dashing story of endurance. Three significant themes arose from participants’ experiences:1) their athletic recruitment process was complex and isolating; 2) their postsecondary transition and navigation was challenging; and 3) their participation in athletics helped them focus their attention away from their adverse experiences, gain access to postsecondary education, and find a chosen family. The study offers implications for future research and immediate practice that could enhance the scholarship on and experiences of college-going Black students with foster care backgrounds coming out of the starter blocks and accelerating toward postsecondary degrees.

The Experiences, and Effects, of Racial Mistreatments in the Lives of Black Male Collegiate Football Players: A Qualitative Analysis

Black male college athletes historically have endured racial mistreatment, particularly at Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs). Yet research examining how these athletes, particularly football players in Power Five conferences, experience such mistreatments and the effects they have on their psychological health and well-being has been sparse. Thus, we interviewed 13 current Black male college football players to document their experiences. Through reflexive thematic analysis, we determined that the athletes (a) believed that football defined and limited them, (b) felt misunderstood and isolated on campus, (b) were dehumanized and criminalized, and (d) were physically and psychologically exhausted from chronic racial mistreatments. There remains a clear need for clinical, policy, and systemic changes to support the mental health needs of Black male college athletes.

Anti-Black Misandry as an Emotional Reflection With Black American Male College Athletes: An Interpretative Phenomenological Study

Black American males, specifically Black male athletes, experience a form of twoness that uniquely recognizes their talents but also a societal fear. This work addresses Black American males’ multidimensionality and emotional and psychological expressions when dealing with societal racism. This work explores Anti-Black misandry through an interpretive phenomenological lens. Five Black American men who are former college athletes reflect and emotionally express their experiences being a Black man and an athlete throughout their entire athletic continuum and post their athletic tenure. Results suggest that Black males are willing to express their vulnerabilities emotionally in safe spaces while recognizing racialized gender norms about emotional expressions. Implications of this study suggest that Black American male college athletes, when given constructive support, have meaningful ideas and resolutions about how society can honestly acknowledge their humanity and not just gaze at their existence as entertaining objects.

Under the Influence: Marijuana, the Black Male Athlete, and Alternative Understandings of Humanity

This paper analyzes a series of advertisements from the antidrug campaign Above the Influence and interviews of former National Football League and National Basketball Association players by the website Bleacher Report regarding their marijuana use. Guided by Christina Sharpe’s theoretical concept of the “wake,” I argue that the Above the Influence adverts produce a trope I call Chronic Black male sporting hood. A trope that holds the Black body in a state of dehumanization. The second half of this paper utilizes Sharpe’s Black methodological tool of Black annotation/redaction. Through this Black methodological tool, the testimonial of the athletes, and the influences of Black musicians, I argue that these athletes provide insight into alternative ways of living and being human that arise from the anti-Black practices of sport with marijuana serving as their catalyst.

Self-Presentation and Black Male College Athletes at Historically White Institutions

Black male college athletes (BMCAs) are in a unique position within the contexts of historically white institutions and Division I college athletics. Recently, BMCAs have increasingly presented themselves in ways that highlight specific social identities or even in opposition to the college athletic system and higher education environment. However, little has changed as power and privilege remain central forces in white-dominated settings. This constructivist grounded theory study examines how historically white institution and Division I athletic environments influence self-presentation of BMCAs through a Black critical theory lens. The experiences of 16 BMCAs illuminated how self-presentation was influenced by academic and athletic settings, Division I subdivision characteristics, and sport-specific contexts. I conclude with recommendations and directions for future research.

Re-Conceptualizing Kaepernick’s Kneeling Protests and His Banishment From the NFL as an Infringement on His “Right to Work”

A nascent literature is emerging that analyzes the case of Kaepernick who was “locked out” of the National Football League (NFL) beginning in 2017 because he chose to protest police brutality, systemic racism, and white supremacy. Using status expectations states theory and prototypicality theory, our research re-conceptualizes Kaepernick’s lock-out as an infringement on his right to work. First, we utilize a modified case-study approach comparing his experiences to those of six other Black male athletes who were “locked out.” Second, we utilize data and “matched cases” to demonstrate empirically that Kaepernick was locked out of the league while quarterbacks who were less qualified (based on specific performance measures) were allowed to continue working. Our analysis demonstrates that Kaepernick was denied his “right to work” because he, like other Black male athletes before him, challenged structural racism and white supremacy.

Sudden Cardiac Arrest in Basketball and Soccer Stadiums, the Role of Automated External Defibrillators: A Review. For the BELTRAN Study (BaskEtbaLl and soccer sTadiums: Registry on Automatic exterNal defibrillators).

Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) during sports events has a dramatic impact on stadium-goers and the public and is often associated with poor outcomes unless treated with an automated external defibrillator (AED). Despite this, stadiums vary in AED use. This review aims to identify the risks and incidences of SCA, and the use of AEDs in soccer and basketball stadiums. A narrative review of all relevant papers was conducted. Athletes across all sports face an SCA risk of 1:50,000 athlete-years, with the greatest risk of SCA in young male athletes (1:35,000 person-years) and black male athletes (1:18,000 person-years). Africa and South America have the poorest soccer SCA outcomes at 3% and 4% survival. AED use on-site improves survival greater than defibrillation by emergency services. Many stadiums do not have AEDs implemented into medical plans and the AEDs are often unrecognisable or are obstructed. Therefore, AEDs should be used on-site, use clear signalling, have certified trained personnel, and be incorporated into stadiums' medical plans.

Colin in Black and White

Colin in Black and White

'Safe Sport Is Not for Everyone': Equity-Deserving Athletes' Perspectives of, Experiences and Recommendations for Safe Sport.

There is a growing concern that the voices of athletes, and in particular, athletes from equity-deserving groups, are unaccounted for in the development and advancement of Safe Sport initiatives. The lack of consideration of the needs and experiences of diverse groups is concerning, given the existing literature outside the context of sport indicating that equity-deserving individuals experience more violence. As such, the following study sought to understand how equity-deserving athletes interpret and experience Safe Sport. Grounded within an interpretive phenomenological analysis, semi-structured interviews were used to understand how athletes with marginalised identities conceptualise and experience Safe Sport. Seven participants, including two Black male athletes, two White, gay male athletes, one Middle Eastern female athlete, one White, female athlete with a physical disability and one White, non-binary, queer, athlete with a physical disability, were asked to conceptualise and describe their experiences of Safe Sport. The findings revealed these athletes perceived Safe Sport as an unrealistic and unattainable ideal that cannot fully be experienced by those from equity-deserving groups. This interpretation was reinforced by reported experiences of discriminatory comments, discriminatory behaviours and systemic barriers, perpetrated by coaches, teammates, and resulting from structural aspects of sport. The findings draw on the human rights literature to suggest integrating principles of equity, diversity and inclusion are fundamental to safeguarding equity-deserving athletes.

“I Might as Well Get My Education”: The Experiences of Black Male Division III College Athletes

Division III college athletes have been largely ignored in the growing literature involving college sport. Given that the majority of college athletes that participate in high profile sports are athletes of color, there is a need to explore the experiences of this population, specifically at the Division III level. Informed by the Excellence Beyond Athletics (EBA) framework, which empowers students of color, especially Black male athletes, the purpose of this study is to explore the experiences of Black male athletes at two rural Division III institutions. Ten Black male Division III athletes took part in semi-structured interviews. Using inductive analysis and descriptive coding, six final themes were established: College Choice/Financial Issues, Academics, Time Management, Athletic Identity/Culture, Commitment to Athletics, and Campus Climate/Black Experience. This study strives to better understand the experiences of Black male college athletes at the Division III level in hopes of enhancing the student experience through impactful programming.

Black male college athlete identity: A scoping review

Scholarship on college athlete identity has increased within recent decades; however, there remains a dearth of literature centred on identity and Black male college athletes. While athletic identity is often self and socially regarded as a dominant identity, this population also holds numerous identities, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, class, and being a student. This scoping review synthesizes 26 peer-reviewed pieces of scholarship that focus on Black male college athletes and identity. Thematic categories found in this literature include discussions of athletic identity, complexities and intersections of identity, United States (US) college and athletic context impacting identity salience, and shifting the narrative of Black male college athlete identity. This review concludes with future directions that encourage the increase in research regarding identity and Black male college athletes.

Sports in African American Life: Essays on History and Culture

This somewhat disjointed collection of essays on African Americans and sporting life exhibits the difficulties of weaving many pioneering individual and local studies into larger metanarratives and broader interpretive frameworks for a broad audience. The book is organized into four parts, with essays exploring African American sports history, their role in activism, the intersection of race and gender, and African American athletes in the visual arts.Part I explores episodes in Black athletic history. Of the three historical essays in the collection, only one fully demonstrates the possibilities of archival research. Derrick White's essay on the foundations of Black college football stresses the importance of community-building and public support to the rise of the game at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and emphasizes the significance of “congregation” created by the Black press, administrators, university presidents, and Black coaches. The essay follows White's excellent 2019 book Blood, Sweat, and Tears and hints at the complex and contradictory outcomes of desegregation for HBCU students and athletes explored further in the book. Stanley Keith Arnold provides a brief synthetic summary of the research done on Black women athletes and their breakthroughs in the Olympics from 1932 to 1948, with some contextualization pulled from Black newspapers across the United States. Focusing largely on the feats of individuals like Theodora “Tidye” Pickett, Louise Stokes, and Alice Coachman—as well as the programs at Tuskegee Institute and Tennessee State—Arnold aims to show that the early successes of Black women were important as real experiences and symbolic victories. A third essay by Kevin Hogg tidily organizes a litany of early Black professional wrestlers from the 1890s to the World Wrestling Entertainment.A timely collection of articles on social-justice activism makes up Part II. Demetrius W. Pearson briefly evaluates the two “godfathers” of Black basketball: Edwin Bancroft Henderson and John McLendon. Pearson neatly outlines their advocacy for the role of interracial sports competitions, which could play as a “racial equalizer” before the civil rights movement. At a time when Harry Edwards's ongoing scholarly examination of Black athletes in America should be revisited, a pair of articles use Edwards as a theoretical launching pad in their very brief reviews of African American athletes’ social interventions. Fritz G. Polite and Jeremai Santiago attempt to pressure the NCAA by applying a corporate responsibility model to the contradictions of the Black student-athlete. Joseph N. Cooper, Michael Mallery Jr., and Charles D. T. Macaulay set out a periodization of activism in seven distinct periods from antebellum to the Black Lives Matter movement, which may help other scholars in framing change and continuity in the various episodes of Black athletic resistance. A final essay by Miciah Z. Yehudah aggressively challenges the sports industry as a “tentacle” of modern colonialism and white supremacy. Readers will be curious to weigh his very critical interpretations of Michael Jordan, Muhammad Ali, and others who have inhabited their activism “traditions” against the cloying infatuations that have been manufactured around athletic celebrities.Yehudah's essay contrasts immensely with the piece that follows it, the first of the third part of the book on gender and identity. F. Michelle Richardson and Akilah R. Carter-Francique outline the pioneering role of Black sportswomen and their historical activism to overcome limited access and multiple levels of discrimination. The editor, alongside Christina Kanu, returns volley by exhibiting that most Black male athletes suffer academically and personally after athletic dreams die. Together, these three essays constitute a formidable list to teach with or structure a debate about whether Black athletes should persist in the face of multiple modes of exploitation.A final, slightly ill-suited triad of articles centers on media and artistic analysis. The high school athletic recruiting process is a site of conversion for athletic aspirations, talent-hungry coaches at predominantly white institutions, and the commercial interests of websites that traffic in statistical information, notes Travis R. Bell. He suggests that the mediated construction of recruits further reifies student athletes without consideration for their bourgeoning identities and draws them away from their academic potential. The essay has little in common with the subsequent chapters on U.S. sports films and sports fetishism in African American art.The collection as a whole proves difficult to reconcile. On the one hand, many good articles seem extremely helpful as summaries of Black athletic histories and the critical engagement with narratives of Black achievement in sports. On the other, the collection can feel repetitive when each author outlines their engagement with similar theoretical frameworks, yet it can also feel disconnected as its authors’ arguments represent disparate modes of research and claims to argumentative certainty. In the end, readers of this journal will find the first two parts potentially useful at a time when sports history discussions cannot be disentangled from questions about race, especially in America.

They’re Just Here for Ball: Proposing a Multi-Level Analysis on the Impact of Collegiate Athletics at Historically White Institutions on Black Male Collegiate Athlete Holistic Identity

As the overrepresentation of Black male collegiate athletes (BMCA) increases in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I (DI) revenue-generating sports, coaches and athletic staff continue to overemphasize sport performance, while graduation rates for BMCA remain persistently lower than their peers and research continues to document transition out of sport concerns for this population. Proposing a multi-level approach, we explore the collegiate athletic factors that influence the holistic identity development of DI revenue generating BMCA at historically White institutions (HWIs) leading to difficulty transitioning out of sport. At the macro-level, the NCAA and its policies on eligibility are analyzed. At the meso-level, HWIs collegiate athletic departments and the impact of organizational practices are examined in regards to their impact on BMCA’s identity development, overall experiences and transition out of sport. Lastly, at the micro-level, we explore research focused on BMCAs’ experiences, expectations, and issues at HWIs. By identifying salient factors influencing BMCAs’ identity development and experiences, collegiate athletic stakeholders can use this information to create more effective programming and improve campus cultures that foster BMCAs’ holistic development on a systematized basis creating an environment where BMCAs are prepared to move into the next stage of life after sport ends.

Professional migration from the United States to Europe: Composite vignettes of black male basketball players from underserved communities

ObjectiveTo explore how the intersectional perspective of being a Black male from an underserved community shaped the professional cultural transition of American basketball players to Europe. Designand Method: The seven Black male athletes, who met the criteria of playing at least one year in a professional European basketball league and spending their formative years in an underserved community in the USA, participated in this study. Life story interviews, lasting between one and 2 h, were analysed through the principles of narrative analysis. Creative non-fiction was used to represent the findings in the form of composite vignettes using the words of the participants to create an evocative and meaningful experiential reconstruction. FindingsThe analysis uncovered three primary themes; steppingstones to becoming a professional basketball migrant; from America to Europe: a whole new world once again; and “don't bother to unpack your bags:” from ups and downs to settlement plans. Within these themes, the intersectional identity of being a Black male from a poor community underpinned the storyline. ConclusionsAll seven participants left their underserved community at some point during their teenage years, and this transition into a more affluent, White dominated society proved beneficial for the move to Europe. Further, the shared intersectional identity of being an African American male from a low socioeconomic community had critical implications for how they experienced the cultural transition to Europe, and how they were received by the host environment.

Touchdown! Sentenced: Investigating Disciplinary Actions against Black and White Male Athletes in the National Football League (NFL) and Criminality in United States Society

Touchdown! Sentenced: Investigating Disciplinary Actions against Black and White Male Athletes in the National Football League (NFL) and Criminality in United States Society

My Ambitionz az a Qualitative Ridah1: A 2PAC Analysis of the Black Male Baller in Amerikkka2

The purpose of this paper is to contextualize and analyze the lyrics of Tupac Shakur by using the research methodological approach of concatenation to merge hip-hop and sport so that the qualitative data from these songs might serve as a cultural map to constructs of identity, race, social class, and black masculinity in the context of sport and the black male athlete experience in America. Applying critical race theory and White’s framework of black masculinity and the politics of racial performance, a connection is made with themes of the artists’ (rapper) social commentary and the athlete (baller). The themes from Tupac Shakur’s lyrics are follows: (a) Trapped, (b) Against the World, (c) The Streetz R Death,and (d) Ambitionz. Synergy with the rapper and baller are articulated, as well as implications for scholars and practitioners that work with high school, collegiate, and professional black male athletes, along with other men of color.

Cyber Racism Toward Black Athletes: A Critical Race Analysis of TexAgs.com Online Brand Community

While athletes in the 21st century have strategically leveraged technology and social media to disseminate their powerful truths (e.g., narratives) and to use as tools for organization, empowerment, and the disruption of hegemonic norms, sports fans have also found refuge on the internet and in cyberspace—namely, within online brand communities (OBCs). In this study, we draw from critical race theory (CRT) to interrogate cyber racism against Black male athletes in the http://TexAgs.com OBC. The primary purpose of this study was to conduct an exploratory collective case study of fan-generated discourse about Michael Bennett, Mike Evans, Myles Garrett, and Von Miller. Content analysis was used to examine and uncover the racially charged language directed toward these athletes. Three salient, interrelated themes were (1) good Aggie versus bad Aggie dichotomy, (2) dumb/misguided, and (3) thug. In line with the counter-narrative/storytelling tenet of CRT, we present Michael Bennett’s (2018) personal narrative from his book to directly counter the racialized discourse about his peers and him on TexAgs. Based on the findings, we conclude with implications for sport communication and social justice in both the public sphere and cyberspaces.

Exploring the Notion of Individual Social Responsibility (ISR) among Black Male College Football Athletes

Black male athletes are prominent figures in sport and society; and, as such, they are often subjected to the pressure of acting in a socially responsible manner. Given the predominance of Black males in American college athletics, it is important to examine their roles in society both on and off the field of play. Building upon of Agyemang and Singer’s (2013) study on the individual social responsibility (ISR) of Black male professional athletes, the purpose of this study was to explore the concept of ISR among Black male college athletes. In this study, we engaged in semi-structured interviews with Black male football athletes in efforts to garner a baseline understanding of how they perceive their social responsibility as notable members of society. Initial findings suggest notions of being a role model, engaging in ethical behavior, and overcoming marginalization, mainly in regard to issues of race. Implications for future research are discussed.

Out of Bounds: A Critical Race Theory Perspective on ‘Pay for Play’

Under the amateur/education model, the amount that colleges and universities can provide to their student/athletes is limited to the athlete’s cost of attending their institution. While this model makes sense for most college sports, NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision and Division I men’s basketball tend to generate almost all the revenue to fund their institution’s entire athletic programs, as well as the revenues received by the NCAA. Added to this is the realization that a majority of the elite athletes in these two revenue-generating sports are black. Thus, as revenues generated by these sports has escalated, a contentious debate has raged for over 30 years about the potential racial exploitation of the application of the amateur/education model to these two sports. Both sides of this debate tend to see the issue of racial exploitation in terms of dividing the revenues between the athletes or the NCAA and its member institutions. Either the institutions receive more of the funds to use as they see fit or more of the revenues are provided to the athletes—probably at the expense of the amateur/education model. This article attempts to reformulate this debate about racial exploitation by focusing on the interest of the entire Black community, not just the interest of the elite black male athletes. By taking the Black community’s perspective, a different view of the issue of racial exploitation and, more importantly, potential solutions to the dilemma emerge. In order to counteract the charge that the amateur/education model is potentially racially exploitive, the NCAA and its member institutions could also institute and fund massive programs that would increase the college attendance and graduation rates for the entire Black community. Admittedly, these programs would have to be tailored in such a way as not to run afoul of the current interpretations of anti-discrimination laws, but that is possible.