Macaca Nigra Research Articles

The Gastrointestinal Parasites in Habituated Group of Sulawesi Black-crested Macaque (<i>Macaca nigra</i>) in Tangkoko, North Sulawesi

The Sulawesi black-crested macaque (Macaca nigra) is an endemic primate of North Sulawesi that is categorized as critically endangered (IUCN 2015). Endoparasite contributes to the decline of M.nigra. Therefore, this study aims to determine the prevalence of endoparasites in the Sulawesi black-crested macaque (M. nigra). We collected 80 fresh fecal samples representing all sex from the two habituated groups. We analyzed them using the direct examination technique (0.9% NaCl, iodine, methylene blue) and flotation technique with the modified McMaster test. A total of 15 endoparasite taxa were recorded and 78 of 80 samples were infected with at least one or several endoparasite taxa. Around 93.75% (75/80) samples were positive for protozoa (Balantidium sp., Entamoeba sp., Giardia sp., and Isospora sp.) and 88.75% (71/80) samples were positive for helminths (Ancylostoma sp., Strongyloides sp., Haemonchus sp., Trichuris sp., Trichostrongylus sp., Ascarid sp., Diphyllobothrium sp., Echinococcus sp., Hymenolepis sp., Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma mekongi). The abundance of protozoa was higher than helminth, although the number of helminth taxon (11) was higher. The average temperature and monthly rainfall did not affect the number of endoparasites (EPG). The prevalence was higher in females than males due to different social styles; female crested macaques are more tolerant than males. The group with a larger number of individuals had a higher prevalence of endoparasites. These results confirm the presence and high diversity of gastrointestinal endoparasites in M. nigra, which can help to understand transmission dynamics and zoonotic potential, as well as to consider conservation policies.

Systemic and Cardiac Amyloidosis in Captive Celebes Crested Macaques (Macacanigra)

Systemic amyloidosis has been described in many animals and the most common form is reactive systemic AA amyloidosis. However, cardiac amyloidosis leading to heart failure is rare in animals. We now describe systemic and cardiac amyloidosis in two captive endangered Celebes crested macaques (Macaca nigra) at the Singapore Zoo. Both animals were geriatric and had chronic morbidities. Physical examination, radiography and ultrasonography revealed cardiac arrhythmia, pleural effusion, pulmonary oedema and ascites, consistent with cardiac failure. Amyloidosis was suspected and confirmed as type AA by immunohistochemistry.

Testing artificial nestbox designs for in-situ conservation of tamarins

Reconnecting fragmented habitats by planting forest corridors is becoming necessary to support isolated populations of threatened callitrichid primates (marmosets and tamarins) in Brazil. Tamarins frequently use tree holes as sleeping sites, but young forests do not provide these; artificial nestboxes offer a potential solution until trees in the corridors reach maturity. However, how effective such nestboxes are in attracting callitrichids and providing safety from predators is unquantified. We tested three features that might be important in the design of callitrichid nestboxes: internal shelves or entrance tunnels, to prevent predators from reaching tamarins in the boxes, and a second exit point to provide an escape route. Seven groups of zoo-housed pied tamarins (Saguinus bicolor) were given a choice between an unmodified nestbox with a single entrance and a box with one of the three test features. Each group was tested 12–13 times under each choice condition. Tamarins chose to sleep in boxes with tunnels (overall probability of selection = 0.72) and shelves (probability of selection = 0.53) in preference to unmodified boxes, but rarely opted for boxes with two entrance holes (probability = 0.3). A generalised linear mixed model showed that these differences were statistically significant (F = 15.6, df = 2, P < 0.0001). Tamarins spent more time in the hour before retiring in nestboxes with tunnels or shelves than in unmodified boxes, but less time in boxes with two entrances (F = 11.84, df = 2, 53.05, P < 0.0001). They also retired latest and rose earliest if they used boxes with two entrances. To test their susceptibility to predation, boxes of each design were baited and offered to coatis (Nasua nasua), macaques (Macaca nigra), and capuchins (Cebus capucinus and Sapajus xanthosternos). Four trials were conducted for each box type with each species. None managed to obtain bait from boxes with tunnels, but all rapidly retrieved the bait from boxes with two entrances. Pied tamarins therefore preferred nestbox designs (tunnels) offering the most protection from predators.

PREGNANT AND LACTATING Macaca nigra: BEHAVIOR AND FOOD SELECTION

Pregnancy and lactation are reproductive phases that require large amounts of energy. Females in the reproductive period need good quality and quantity of food to provide nutrition for the fetus, milk production and child care. The mother will adapt to changes in behavior patterns and food type to meet these needs. The influence of parity and environmental conditions can affect the behavior patterns of females. During pregnancy, the Macaca nigra is known to have different proportion of activities in each period, while the behavior during the lactation phase in each mester is unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the behavior patterns in each mester and the food selection of Macaca nigra during the pregnancy and lactation phases, as well as the influence of female parity and environmental toward the behavior patterns. There were 39 females Macaca nigra observed from two groups from August 2018 to July 2019. An instantaneous focal sampling method was performed to observe females’ daily activities, continuous focal sampling to monitor food types and a selectivity index to analyze food type preferences. The results showed that the female Macaca nigra pattern was influenced by the reproductive phase, female parity and environmental conditions. Females at the end of the pregnancy and lactation phases had a high proportion of feeding and eat more arthropods. Primiparous females mostly performed resting activities. Food preference was influenced by reproductive factors and food availability. The choice of fruit could be affected by fruit availability, and their favorite food was D. mangiferum and Euginia sp.

Island Life: Use of Activity Budgets and Visibility to Evaluate a Multi-Species Within-Zoo Exhibit Move.

Simple SummaryModern zoos aim to provide the best facilities possible for their animals, staff and visitors. Here, we present findings from a study focusing on the behaviour and visibility of four species pre- and post-translocation to a new environment, Islands, within Chester Zoo, UK: the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), crested macaque (Macaca nigra), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) and the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). We used full activity budgets to demonstrate that the move to new, custom-built facilities influenced the behaviour of all four species. Following relocation, both non-human primate species were found to spend more time interacting socially with group members and abnormal behaviours remained low for all four species. Malayan tapirs and crested macaques chose to spend more time in areas out of public view post-move, whilst Malayan sun bears were more visible to visitors in their new environment. We demonstrate the value of giving animals choice and control over how they interact with their surroundings, the importance in investment in behavioural monitoring throughout translocation events and add to the knowledge-base of this understudied area.Modern zoos strive to construct habitats which both enable and encourage animals to engage in species-specific behaviour, without compromising their visibility to visitors. Here, we present the findings of a within-zoo move to a custom-built exhibit (Islands at Chester Zoo, UK) with respect to the behaviour of four mammal species; the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), crested macaque (Macaca nigra), Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) and the Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). We used full activity budgets along with Compositional Data Analysis (CoDA) to gain insight into how the move to a more naturalistic exhibit influenced behaviour. Engagement in abnormal behaviour remained low during the study period for all four species, suggesting no adverse responses to the change in environment. Following the move, both the non-human primate species spent more time engaged in positive social interactions with conspecifics, highlighting the importance of social support during enclosure moves. Time spent visible to the public was largely unaffected by the enclosure move for the Sumatran orangutan, whilst the movement to a new environment increased visibility for the Malayan sun bear and decreased visibility for the crested macaque and Malayan tapir. We demonstrate the value of monitoring behaviour throughout the translocation of zoo-housed species and outline the positive behavioral impacts of providing individuals with naturalistic, species-appropriate environments.

Crested macaque facial movements are more intense and stereotyped in potentially risky social interactions.

Ambiguity in communicative signals may lead to misunderstandings and thus reduce the effectiveness of communication, especially in unpredictable interactions such as between closely matched rivals or those with a weak social bond. Therefore, signals used in these circumstances should be less ambiguous, more stereotyped and more intense. To test this prediction, we measured facial movements of crested macaques (Macaca nigra) during spontaneous social interaction, using the Facial Action Coding System for macaques (MaqFACS). We used linear mixed models to assess whether facial movement intensity and variability varied according to the interaction outcome, the individuals' dominance relationship and their social bond. Movements were least intense and most variable in affiliative contexts, and more intense in interactions between individuals who were closely matched in terms of dominance rating. We found no effect of social bond strength. Our findings provide evidence for a reduction in ambiguity of facial behaviour in risky social situations but do not demonstrate any mitigating effect of social relationship quality. The results indicate that the ability to modify communicative signals may play an important role in navigating complex primate social interactions.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Cognition, communication and social bonds in primates’.

Temporal dynamics and fitness consequences of coalition formation in male primates.

Coalition formation is one of the most striking forms of cooperation found in animals. Yet, there is substantial variation between taxa regarding the mechanisms by which coalitions can result in fitness consequences. Here, we investigate the influence of coalitions on dominance rank trajectories and subsequently on reproductive success in wild male crested macaques (Macaca nigra) at Tangkoko Nature Reserve (Sulawesi, Indonesia). We observed 128 coalition events involving 28 males and tested how a variety of coalition properties and factors related to the social environment influenced future male rank. We further used genetic paternity analysis of 19 infants conceived during the study to assess male reproductive success. Our results show that males participating in coalitions achieved higher-than-expected future ranks, while coalition targets had lower-than-expected future ranks. Additionally, all-up coalitions had stronger effects on rank than all-down and bridging coalitions, and these were modulated by the relative strength of coalition partners versus targets. Finally, higher ranking males were more likely to sire infants than lower ranking males. These results provide important insights regarding the mechanisms underlying coalition formation and support the idea that one major path by which coalitions can affect fitness is through influencing male dominance trajectories.

Functional divergence of the pigmentation gene melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) in six endemic Macaca species on Sulawesi Island

Coat color is often highly variable within and between animal taxa. Among hundreds of pigmentation-related genes, melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) plays key roles in regulating the synthesis of the dark eumelanin and the red–yellow pheomelanin. The six species of macaques that inhabit Sulawesi Island diverged rapidly from their common ancestor, M. nemestrina. Unlike most macaques, Sulawesi macaques commonly have a dark coat color, with divergence in shade and color pattern. To clarify the genetic and evolutionary basis for coat color in Sulawesi macaques, we investigated the MC1R sequences and functional properties, including basal cAMP production and α-MSH-induced activity in vitro. We found fixed non-synonymous substitutions in MC1R in each species. Furthermore, we found that six species-specific variants corresponded with variation in agonist-induced and basal activity of MC1R. Inconsistent with the dark coat color, four substitutions independently caused decreases in the basal activity of MC1R in M. hecki, M. nigra, M. tonkeana, and M. ochreata. Selective analysis suggested MC1R of M. nigra and M. nigrescens underwent purifying selection. Overall, our results suggest that fixed differences in MC1R resulted in different functional characteristics and might contribute to divergence in color among the six Sulawesi macaque species.

Trends in the bushmeat market trade in North Sulawesi and conservation implications

AbstractThe bushmeat trade, or the trade in wild animals for meat, is a primary threat to wildlife and ecosystems in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Hunting for trade and consumption can hasten the local extirpation of vulnerable species, such as fruit bats and the protected babirusa and Sulawesi crested black macaque. This study provides a much‐needed step in understanding the bushmeat trade by describing longitudinal trends in the amount of bushmeat (animal carcasses) observed for sale in markets in North Sulawesi, a particularly biodiversity‐rich area. Surveys were conducted in 10 markets in 2011, 2015, 2018 and 2019. At each market, total counts of all taxa for sale were noted, and encounter rates per market sample were derived to account for variable sampling effort across years and markets. Generalized Linear Mixed Models were used to compare encounter rates across years, months and markets. Our results show that although animal carcasses are still sold in high numbers, there has been an overall decrease between 2011 and 2019, particularly between 2011 and 2018 (encounter rate fell by 99%). However, bats, rats and Sulawesi warty pigs were still present at high levels, indicating a persistent demand for bushmeat in North Sulawesi. The encounter rate of protected taxa for sale was low, but steady throughout the study period. We identified which markets sold the greatest amount of bushmeat to inform future conservation actions and management. Based on our results, the persistent demand for bushmeat in the region, and the continued presence of protected taxa in the markets, we recommend further research to establish the sustainability of the bushmeat trade at its current rate.

The distribution, number, and certain neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons in the brains of a southern lesser galago, a black-capped squirrel monkey, and a crested macaque.

In the current study, we examined the number, distribution, and aspects of the neurochemical identities of infracortical white matter neurons, also termed white matter interstitial cells (WMICs), in the brains of a southern lesser galago (Galago moholi), a black-capped squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis), and a crested macaque (Macaca nigra). Staining for neuronal nuclear marker (NeuN) revealed WMICs throughout the infracortical white matter, these cells being most dense close to inner cortical border, decreasing in density with depth in the white matter. Stereological analysis of NeuN-immunopositive cells revealed estimates of approximately 1.1, 10.8, and 37.7 million WMICs within the infracortical white matter of the galago, squirrel monkey, and crested macaque, respectively. The total numbers of WMICs form a distinct negative allometric relationship with brain mass and white matter volume when examined in a larger sample of primates where similar measures have been obtained. In all three primates studied, the highest densities of WMICs were in the white matter of the frontal lobe, with the occipital lobe having the lowest. Immunostaining revealed significant subpopulations of WMICs containing neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and calretinin, with very few WMICs containing parvalbumin, and none containing calbindin. The nNOS and calretinin immunopositive WMICs represent approximately 21% of the total WMIC population; however, variances in the proportions of these neurochemical phenotypes were noted. Our results indicate that both the squirrel monkey and crested macaque might be informative animal models for the study of WMICs in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders in humans.

Density of The Crested Black Macaque (Macaca nigra) and Habitat Quality in Tangkoko, Bitung, North Sulawesi

The Crested black macaque (Macaca nigra) is an endemic species to the Sulawesi Island, limited distribution, and Critically Endangered on the IUCN red list. The population density in the Tangkoko Conservation Forest Management Unit (CFMU) has decreased significantly due to habitat destruction and hunting. Existing data are based on the study in the northern part of Tangkoko. Currently, data from the southern is urgently needed so that population data covers the entire area, including to identify the habitat quality. The aims of this study was to (1) analyze the population density level of Crested black macaque at the Tangkoko CFMU, (2) identify the habitat characterize of Crested black macaque at the Tangkoko CFMU, (3) analyze the correlation between Crested black macaque density and habitat quality at the Tangkoko CFMU. The study was conducted from January to March 2020 in the sothern of Tangkoko CFMU, North Sulawesi. The data collection on the density of Crested black macaque is done by animals directly inventorying through surveys in the field. Observations are carried out by walking at speeds of 1 - 1.5 km / h on each track and stopping at every 100 m to observe the surroundings. Data recorded is the number of individuals found using the line transect method. Vegetation data collection method used is habitat quality data collection carried out by making sample plots measuring 25 m x 25 m for tree level observations in lines with each distance between plots is 250 m. Data recorded for dominance of vegetation are species names, number of individuals, and diameter at breast height of trees. The results showed that (1) the population density level of Crested black macaque was 15 individuals/km2. The highest amount of density is found on the D4 was 72 individu/km2, the lowest on D1, D5, D6, and D7 with no macaques; (2) vegetation analyzed at 45 plots were important value index with the highest value of 86,95 is Ficus variegata on line D7 for tree level, and Theobroma cacao for pole level with highest value of 120,80 on line D4; (3) the correlation between density of Crested black macaque and habitat quality that shows a positive value based on the Pearson correlation test. Further research is needed to determine the relationship between population density, habitat disturbance, and hunting pressure.

Public Perception on the Existence of Macaca hecki and Macaca tonkeana in Protected Forest and Pangi Binangga Nature Reserve of Central Sulawesi

Wildlife is one of the biological natural resources that can be use it sustainably and sustainably, because wildlife is a natural resource renewable or renewable biological (renewable resources). This study aims to determine public perception of the exixtence of Macaca hecki and Macaca tonkeana in Protected Forest and Pangi Binangga Nature Reserve of Central Sulawesi. This research was carried out along the Palu-Parigi trans road which is in the Protected Forest and Pangi Binangga Nature Reserve, Central Sulawesi Province in April - June 2021. The results showed that presence of endemic Sulawesi macaque (M. hecki and M. tonkeana) along the Palu-Parigi trans road which is in the Protected Forest and Pangi Binangga Nature Reserve area causes various problems such as people experiencing unpleasant events with the presence of macaque, stolen goods, enter into community plantations, and damage various types of agricultural crops (avocado, cloves, cocoa, and several other fruits).

Reproductive males are effective at managing conflict in captive Sulawesi crested macaques (Macaca nigra).

Group size, density, and composition significantly influence the expression of agonism and, as demography is frequently manipulated in captivity, natural mechanisms of conflict management may be disrupted. Here, we examine how changes to the social and physical environment of a captive group of Sulawesi crested macaques, Macaca nigra, influenced mechanisms of conflict management. The initial group was comprised of females, juveniles, and castrated males; under a series of management interventions, the group was moved to a new enclosure, 75% of the castrated adult males were removed, 67% of the females were contracepted, a novel, intact male was introduced, and the group was allowed access to an outdoor enclosure. Despite a decreasing trend in aggression following the changes to the social group, we found no significant differences in aggression or intervention behavior in the 5-week periods immediately following changes to the social group, apart from a significant decrease in aggression following the introduction of the novel male. This decrease in the frequency of aggression was still evident 10 weeks after the interventions occurred, and was coupled with a decrease in the intensity of aggression. Moreover, the intensity of aggression as well as the frequency of aggression and intervention were significantly lower under low-density conditions. Our results highlight how management changes to the social and physical environment can influence aggressive behavior, albeit following a period of acclimation. We discuss the relative impacts of social group composition, social density, and individual reproductive status on the management of conflict behavior in a captive setting.

Female fertile phase synchrony, and male mating and reproductive skew, in the crested macaque

High social status is the primary determinant of reproductive success among group-living male mammals. Primates living in multimale–multifemale groups show the greatest variation in the strength of this link, with marked variation in reproductive skew by male dominance among species, dependent on the degree of female fertile phase synchrony, and the number of competing males. Here, we present data on two groups of wild crested macaques (Macaca nigra), living in the Tangkoko Reserve, Sulawesi, Indonesia. We investigated male monopolization of fertile females in 31 cycles of 19 females, and genetic paternity of 14 offspring conceived during the study period. We show that female fertile phase synchrony was low, that females had few mating partners in their fertile phase, and that dominant males monopolized a high proportion of consortships and matings, resulting in marked and steep mating and reproductive skew. We conclude that female cycle asynchrony provides the opportunity for strong direct male–male competition in crested macaques, resulting in monopolization of females by dominant males, consistent with their marked sexual dimorphism. Our study provides a test of the underlying factors that determine the relative occurrence and strength of different mechanisms of sexual selection, and the phenotypes that evolve as a result.

Studi penyebaran populasi dan daya dukung habitat Kuskus Beruang (Ailurops ursinus) di Pulau Manado Tua Sulawesi Utara

STUDY OF SPREADING POPULATION AND HABITAT CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE SULAWESI BEAR CUSCUS (Ailurops ursinus) AT MANADO TUA ISLAND OF NORTH SULAWESI. Manado Tua Island is still keeping the endemic Sulawesi bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus), dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis), black macaque (Macaca nigra), tarsius (Tarsius spectrum) as well as some kinds of plant biodiversity including forest galangal (Alpina sp.) and forest pandanus (Pandanus sp.), all should be protected intensively. Objective of this study was to evaluate spreading population and habitat carrying capacity of bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus) at the Island of Manado Tua I and II, to be used for recommendation package of conservation model on the base of administrative condition of Manado governmental areas. The Variables observed in this study were population density of bear cuscus and dwarf cuscus as well as their habitat carrying capacity of plant vegetation including categories of try, bush, thicket and seedling levels. Data of wild animals were found by Line Transect Method. Plant vegetations were calculated based on the important index values of each category level. Result showed that Manado Tua I Island was inhabited by dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis) of about 295 heads and bear cuscus (Ailurops Ursinus) of about 49 heads. Manado Tua II Island was inhabited by dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscus celebensis) of about 305 heads and bear cuscus (Ailurops Ursinus) of about 57 heads. Habitat carrying capacity of try vegetation level of the important index values was about 298,65% and seedling vegetation level of about 300,68%. These mean that carrying capacity was supporting the conservation for both kinds of cuscus in Manado Tua Island. These population of the endemic wild animals in Manado Tua I dan II Islands should be protected as their habitat area was degrading due to uncontrol illegal logging and hunting by local community.Keywords: habitat carrying capacity, dwarf cuscus, bear cuscus

Genome-wide analysis reveals signatures of complex introgressive gene flow in macaques (genus Macaca).

The genus Macaca serves as an ideal research model for speciation and introgressive gene flow due to its short period of diversification (about five million years ago) and rapid radiation of constituent species. To understand evolutionary gene flow in macaques, we sequenced four whole genomes (two M. arctoides and two M. thibetana) and combined them with publicly available macaque genome data for genome-wide analyses. We analyzed 14 individuals from nine Macaca species covering all Asian macaque species groups and detected extensive gene flow signals, with the strongest signals between the fascicularis and silenus species groups. Notably, we detected bidirectional gene flow between M. fascicularis and M. nemestrina. The estimated proportion of the genome inherited via gene flow between the two species was 6.19%. However, the introgression signals found among studied island species, such as Sulawesi macaques and M. fuscata, and other species were largely attributed to the genomic similarity of closely related species or ancestral introgression. Furthermore, gene flow signals varied in individuals of the same species (M. arctoides, M. fascicularis, M. mulatta, M. nemestrina and M. thibetana), suggesting very recent gene flow after the populations split. Pairwise sequentially Markovian coalescence (PSMC) analysis showed all macaques experienced a bottleneck five million years ago, after which different species exhibited different fluctuations in demographic history trajectories, implying they have experienced complicated environmental variation and climate change. These results should help improve our understanding of the complicated evolutionary history of macaques, particularly introgressive gene flow.

Using occupancy-based camera-trap surveys to assess the Critically Endangered primateMacaca nigraacross its range in North Sulawesi, Indonesia

AbstractPrimates are one of the most threatened groups of mammals. Understanding their patterns of population occurrence and abundance, especially in response to threats, is critical for informing conservation action. The crested black macaqueMacaca nigrais the only Critically Endangered species of Sulawesi's seven endemic macaques. Little is known about its distribution or its response to deforestation and hunting. We conducted a camera-trap survey across the entire species range using an occupancy-based analytical approach to (1) establish the first range-wide baseline of occurrence, (2) investigate how environmental and anthropogenic factors influence occurrence, (3) identify priority conservation subpopulations, and (4) test the efficacy of the sampling and analytical protocol for temporal monitoring ofM. nigrausing occupancy as the state variable. From 9,753 camera-trap days,M. nigrawas detected on 473 days at 77 of the 111 camera locations. Species occupancy was 0.66 and highest inside protected areas and closed canopy forest. We identified eight distinct subpopulations, based on distribution and forest fragment size. To inform future monitoring, we used a power analysis to determine if our effort would allow us to detect inter-annual occupancy declines of 10%, and found that 90 camera locations surveyed for 3 months (8,100 camera days) across three consecutive seasons is the effort required to detect such change with 80% certainty. Our study underscores the importance of well-managed protected areas and intact forests for the long-term survival of the crested black macaque, and tests the effectiveness of camera traps to monitor primates at the landscape scale.

Mitogenomics of macaques (Macaca) across Wallace's Line in the context of modern human dispersals

Wallace's Line demarcates a biogeographical boundary between the Indomalaya and Australasian ecoregions. Most placental mammalian genera, for example, occur to the west of this line, whereas most marsupial genera occur to the east. However, macaque monkeys are unusual because they naturally occur on both western and eastern sides. To further explore this anomalous distribution, we analyzed 222 mitochondrial genomes from ∼20 macaque species, including new genomes from 60 specimens. These comprise a population sampling of most Sulawesi macaques, Macaca fascicularis (long-tailed macaques) specimens that were collected by Alfred R. Wallace and specimens that were recovered during archaeological excavations at Liang Bua, a cave on the Indonesian island of Flores. In M. fascicularis, three mitochondrial lineages span the southernmost portion of Wallace's Line between Bali and Lombok, and divergences within these lineages are contemporaneous with, and possibly mediated by, past dispersals of modern human populations. Near the central portion of Wallace's Line between Borneo and Sulawesi, a more ancient dispersal of macaques from mainland Asia to Sulawesi preceded modern human colonization, which was followed by rapid dispersal of matrilines and was subsequently influenced by recent interspecies hybridization. In contrast to previous studies, we find no strong signal of recombination in most macaque mitochondrial genomes. These findings further characterize macaque evolution before and after modern human dispersal throughout Southeast Asia and point to possible effects on biodiversity of ancient human cultural diasporas.

Identification of Follower Status Based on Male Proximity Score in Crested Macaque

Crested macaque live in multimale-multifemale social groups where temporary association (consortship) typically occurs. Current theory and these limited qualitative observations suggest the hypothesis that behavior functions as a means for males to gain access to fertile females. The aim of this study was to investigate follower status based on quantitative method. Males were classified as either “consort males,” “followers,” and “non-followers” based on proximity maintanance every 15 minute uses scan sampling. Tactics used by followers were classified into 1) individual challenge, 2) coalitionary challenge, 3) abandoned takeover, and 4) opportunistic takeover. The proportion of successful takeovers by followers was calculated by dividing the number of takeovers by followers by the total number of observed takeovers. The proportion of followers is higher than average on D-5 and earlier, D-4, and D-3. Only two of the four consort takeover tactics were used by followers. For abandoned which made up 40% and for individual tactic was made up to 11.5% of consort takeovers tactic used. This study contribute to our understanding of alternative mating strategy in primate and provide the first quantitative data demonstrating that following is an alternative mating strategy in crested macaque (Macaca nigra).

Avoidant social style among wild crested macaque males (Macaca nigra) in Tangkoko Nature Reserve, Sulawesi, Indonesia

Abstract Although it is well established that female crested macaques (Macaca nigra) display very tolerant social styles, less is known about the extent to which crested macaque males can be characterized by the social style concept. We examined core social style traits and other measures of social interactions in three groups of wild crested macaque males in Tangkoko Reserve, Indonesia. Comparisons with males of other macaque species suggest that they display a mixture of tolerant and despotic indicators, a pattern inconsistent with tolerant, despotic or uniformly intermediate designations. Their apparent avoidance of affiliative interactions and reconciliation involving contact suggest that their relationships also contrast with the typically affiliative and relaxed social style of female crested macaques. Rather than labeling them as distinctly tolerant or despotic, we describe the social style of crested males as ‘avoidant’, which may reflect tense relationships due to high levels of risky reproductive competition.