Black Hills Research Articles

Synsedimentary, Diagenetic, and Metamorphic Pyrite, Pyrrhotite, and Marcasite at the Homestake BIF-Hosted Gold Deposit, South Dakota, USA: Insights on Au-As Ore Genesis from Textural and LA-ICP-MS Trace Element Studies

The Paleoproterozoic Homestake deposit, northern Black Hills, South Dakota, is the largest banded iron-formation (BIF)-hosted gold deposit in the world and one of the largest single gold deposits globally (~1,300 t Au mined at an average grade of 8.4 g/t). The origin of the deposit has remained in dispute from its discovery, with views broadly falling into two groups: (1) the gold and associated elements were externally sourced and deposited in a suitable structural and/or chemical trap (e.g., iron formation), and (2) gold was indigenous to the host iron formation, from which it was remobilized into dilatant structural zones during deformation and metamorphism. In recent times, most workers have favored the former model, appealing to the broad synchroneity of Paleoproterozoic metamorphism, felsic magmatic activity, and gold event timing. LA-ICP-MS analysis of synsedimentary to early diagenetic sulfides at Homestake and surrounding area indicates that the Au in the orebodies may have originally had a significant syngenetic component. In particular, LA-ICP-MS mapping of multistage pyrites from carbonaceous shale in the upper Poorman Formation shows that Au and a suite of trace elements (Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Mo, Ag, Sb, Te, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, and Bi), similar to those in diagenetic pyrite from around the globe, are contained in anhedral, sponge-textured cores and nodules surrounded by relatively trace element barren, Au-poor, euhedral pyrite rims. Furthermore, interelement ratios (e.g., Co/Ni, Ni/Ag) of the trace element-rich spongy and nodular pyrites are also similar to those of typical diagenetic pyrite. LA-ICP-MS imaging of pyrrhotite in the same rocks reveals multistage growth in this mineral as well, with the earlier generation having higher concentrations of Ag, Sb, Pb, Tl, and Bi than its presumed metamorphic counterpart. Imaging of marcasite in the shales of the upper Poorman Formation demonstrates this mineral’s high abundance of W and Tl relative to all generations of pyrite and pyrrhotite. Mass-balance calculations indicate that the volume of upper Poorman Formation in the mine area (approx. 12 km3) could potentially yield ~4,500 t of Au, a value greater than the total mined resource by more than a factor of three. These geochemical data and calculations suggest that a significant portion of the gold at Homestake may have been sourced from the relatively thick carbonaceous and sulfidic black shale facies in the stratigraphic footwall to the host iron formation, in a manner similar to other sediment-hosted gold districts.

A Reassessment of the Distribution of Virginia’s Warbler in the Black Hills of South Dakota

virginia’s Warbler (Oreothlypis virginiae) reaches the northeastern limit of its breeding range in the southern Black Hills of South Dakota, where it is considered a species of conservation concern. this population occurs in pine–juniper–shrub habitat in several canyons in extreme western Custer County. additional such habitat occurs in the southern Black Hills south and east of the documented breeding populations, but these areas have received few systematic surveys, and whether virginia’s Warbler occupies them was uncertain. therefore, to define the species’ distribution in the South Dakota Black Hills more precisely, we surveyed with the aid of broadcast song and reviewed other reports. virginia’s Warblers occurred in appropriate habitats all along the southwestern front (approximately 30 km total) of the Black Hills in Custer County but did not occur in similar habitat along the southeastern front, approximately 25 km distant. the species’ relative abundance in previously and newly identified pine–juniper–shrub habitats was similar. virginia’s Warbler occurrence was positively associated with shrub cover (primarily mountain-mahogany, Cercocarpus montanus), pine overstory, and slopes of >15°. its association with the Spotted towhee (Pipilo maculatus) was negative, with the yellow-rumped Warbler (Setophaga coronata) tended toward positive, and with the Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) was variable (negative along the southwestern front but weakly positive across all sites). these data extend the documented breeding range of virginia’s Warbler in South Dakota by more than 20 km to the southeast. to clarify conservation priorities for this species at the northeastern limit of its range, future studies should delineate local and landscape-level characteristics of this population’s habitat more precisely and address its source–sink population dynamics. virginia’s Warbler (Oreothlypis virginiae) nests widely in mountainous regions of southwestern north america from southeastern idaho and southwestern Wyoming into southern arizona, new Mexico, and western texas (olson and Martin 1999). the species’ northeasternmost population is isolated in the southwestern Black Hills of South Dakota, separated by over 200 km from the next nearest breeding population in south-central Wyoming (Swanson et al. 2000). Breeding habitat occurs on mountain slopes and consists of dense, shrubby vegetation with taller plants interspersed or nearby (olson and Martin 1999). in various portions of the breeding range the shrubby vegetation may include chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), currant (Ribes spp.), serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), scrub oak (Quercus gambelii), or mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) (olson and Martin 1999). the taller vegetation may consist of pinyon pine (Pinus spp.), juniper (Juniperus spp.), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), taller scrub oak, or aspen (Populus tremuloides) (olson and Martin 1999). virginia’s Warbler was first definitively recorded in South Dakota in 1997,

The Great Sioux Nation V. The 'Black Snake': Native American Rights and the Keystone Xl Pipeline

The Keystone XL Pipeline has been shrouded in controversy almost since its conception. As a structure intending to cross the Canadian border into the United States, the pipeline must receive presidential approval before construction can commence. Since 2008, TransCanada has attempted to obtain this approval unsuccessfully. Criticism against the pipeline has focused largely on the negative environmental impacts that will likely accompany its construction and utilization, and it is precisely these environmental concerns that have ultimately stymied presidential approval and made international headlines. In November 2015, the U.S. government denied TransCanada’s application, effectively killing the Keystone XL project. While the Keystone XL project no longer poses a physical threat to the environment, an overview of the U.S. government’s consideration of the project reveals drastic flaws in process, specifically in regards to the human rights of a substantial portion of individuals who would be negatively affected by the Keystone XL Pipeline — the Sioux Nation.The pipeline is set to run through a substantial portion of the Black Hills of South Dakota — the sovereign and treaty lands of the Great Sioux Nation. This “black snake” threatens not only the environment of the Sioux lands, but also sites sacred to the tribes. The Sioux Nation has risen up in defense of their lands, and their right to free, prior and informed consent (FPIC) before the state can undertake projects on their indigenous lands. While the U.S. government maintains it has complied with domestic standards regarding Indian consultation and with its perverse interpretation of the right to FPIC protected under the U.N. Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, its actions have fallen drastically short of those expected by the United Nations and required by the inter-American system. This paper argues that under the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, the United States is obligated to obtain the fully informed consent of the Sioux Nation before approving the Keystone XL pipeline.

Rare earth at Bearlodge: anthropocentric and biocentric perspectives of mining development in a multiple use landscape

Multiple use livelihoods and recreational activities provide important economic opportunities for communities throughout the American west, especially in rural areas where public lands are the primary income generator. Federal lands also provide incentives for mining development as the “highest and best use” of the land. This tension between civil society, the mining corporation, and the state as dual regulator/facilitator of natural resource development is most apparent during the public comment period of the environmental assessment process. Such is the case with the Bearlodge mine in the Black Hills National Forest of Wyoming, which has the potential to be the only domestic producer of critical rare earth elements. Therefore, I ask: How do perspectives about control of and access to common property resources and the role of humans as part or separate from an ecological system converge or diverge between community, state, and market stakeholders? To answer this, a Q method survey was carried out from groups representative of the different economic and environmental perspectives related to mining development: environmentalists, the mining/energy sector, state/federal regulators, foresters, local land holders, and recreationalists. Results show that stakeholders fall into two categories: anthropocentrists who desire economic development from the mine for human benefit, even given the potential for environmental harm and curtailed access to multiple use activities; and biocentrists who continue to push for a no development alternative where nature is preserved for nature’s sake and existing livelihoods that help to maintain an already altered environment are able to remain and sustain rural economies.

Elucidating the relationship between the later Cambrian end-Marjuman extinctions and SPICE Event

The late Cambrian-early Ordovician transition contains several discrete marine extinction events. The first of these extinctions, the end-Marjuman, occurs in two phases and is thought to coincide with the beginning of the Steptoean Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion, or SPICE, a large excursion in the marine carbon isotope record that represents a large perturbation to the carbon cycle during this time. Additionally, the carbon isotope record from the Deadwood Formation in the Black Hills of South Dakota, USA, displays a small negative δ13C excursion near the end-Marjuman extinctions. Here we examine the carbon isotope stratigraphy of the Upper Cambrian portion of the Conasauga Group of the Southern Appalachians, USA, to determine the relative timing between the extinction events and changes in the carbon cycle represented by excursions within the carbon isotope record. Previous high-resolution biostratigraphic studies have identified a thick stratigraphic record of end-Marjuman extinctions within the Conasauga Group, making it an excellent target for a high-resolution chemostratigraphic study. In the Conasauga Group, there is no change in carbon isotope stratigraphy across the first phase of the end-Marjuman extinctions, suggesting no major change occurred in the carbon cycle during this time. Further, a negative δ13C excursion is absent in the Conasauga Group across the interval that contains the end-Marjuman extinctions. This suggests that the excursion in the Deadwood Formation is either a local oceanographic signal or a diagenetic feature. Finally, the onset of the SPICE occurs at the same stratigraphic point as the second phase of the end-Marjuman extinctions and at the appearance of a low diversity, potentially low oxygen tolerant, trilobite fauna. The stratigraphic positions of these biological and geochemical events suggest a role for marine anoxia in the second phase of the end-Marjuman extinctions.

Review: Black Hills Forestry: A History by John F. Freeman

Review: Black Hills Forestry: A History by John F. Freeman

Shallow geophysical imaging of the Olympia anomaly: An enigmatic structure in the southern Puget Lowland, Washington State

Gravity and magnetic anomalies suggest that the Olympia structure beneath the southern Puget Lowland (western Washington State, U.S.) vertically displaces Eocene Crescent Formation strata. Northeast of the Olympia structure, middle Eocene Crescent Formation is beneath 4–6 km of Paleogene–Neogene and Quaternary strata of the Tacoma basin, whereas the Crescent Formation is exposed at the surface immediately to the south. Although numerous marine seismic reflection profiles have been acquired near the surface location of the Olympia structure as defined by potential field anomalies, its tectonic character remains enigmatic, in part because inlets of southern Puget Sound are too shallow for the collection of deep-penetration marine seismic profiles across the geophysical anomalies. To supplement existing shallow-marine data near the structure, we acquired 14.6 km of land-based seismic reflection data along a profile that extends from Crescent Formation exposed in the Black Hills northward across the projected surface location of the Olympia structure. The reflection seismic data image the Crescent bedrock surface to ∼1 km depth beneath the southern Tacoma basin and reveal the dip on this surface to be no greater than ∼10°. Although regional potential field data show a strong linear trend for the Olympia structure that implies folding over a blind thrust and/or bedrock juxtaposed against a weakly to nonmagnetic sediment section, high-resolution magnetic anomaly analysis along the land-based profile suggests that the structure is more complex. Overall, seismic and potential-field profiles presented in this study identify only minor shallow faulting within the projected surface location of the Olympia structure. We suggest that the mapped trace of the Olympia structure along the northern flank of the Black Hills, at least within the study area, is constrained by juxtaposed normal and reversely magnetized Crescent Formation units and minor tectonic deformation of Crescent Formation bedrock.

Variables associated with the occurrence ofIpsbeetles, red turpentine beetle and wood borers in live and dead ponderosa pines with post‐fire injury

AbstractRecently, wildfires and prescribed burning have become more frequent in conifer forests of western North America.Most studies examining the impacts of insects on trees with post‐fire injury have focused on contributions to tree mortality. Few studies have examined fire‐caused injuries to estimate the probability of attack by insects. Scant data quantifying insect associations with one another, or with live and dead fire‐injured trees, are available.We examined live and dead trees with varying levels of fire injury in wildfires in Colorado, Montana, Arizona and the Black Hills aiming to determine fire injury associated with insect infestation, co‐occurrence between insects and insect association with live and dead fire‐injured trees.Bole scorch height estimated the likelihood of attack byIpsspp. Diameter at breast height, bole scorch height and crown scorch height estimated the likelihood of attack byDendroctonus valensLeConte. Diameter at breast height and bole scorch height estimated the likelihood of attack by wood borers.Ipsspp.,Dendroctonus valensand wood borers were associated with one another.Ipsspp. beetles and wood borers were associated with dead fire‐injured trees, whereasD. valenswas often associated with live fire‐injured trees.Focusing on certain fire‐caused injuries may identify trees targeted byIpsspp. beetles,Dendroctonus valensand wood borers.

Long-distance dispersal of a subadult male cougar from South Dakota to Connecticut documented with DNA evidence

We report the long-distance dispersal of a subadult male cougar ( Puma concolor ) from South Dakota to Milford, Connecticut, where it was struck and killed by a vehicle. Genetic samples suggest this animal originated from the Black Hills of South Dakota while isotope analysis and physical inspection revealed no evidence that the animal had been held in captivity. We detected this dispersing individual at 5 locations along its route (Minnesota, 3 times in Wisconsin and New York) with DNA from fecal or hair samples, and with multiple photographs from citizen-run camera traps (3 in Wisconsin and 1 in Michigan). The > 2,450 km straight-line distance (Black Hills of South Dakota to Connecticut) traveled by the cougar is the longest dispersal documented for the species. We propose a likely route of > 2,700 km over 2 years based on topography and our confirmed records. We suggest that this excessive movement was motivated by the absence of female cougars along the route. The documentation of such a rare biological event not only shows the great dispersal potential for male cougars but also highlights our ability to detect these movements with verifiable voucher DNA and photographic records. Evidence collected for this one animal, and complete absence of verifiable data from most anecdotal reports of cougars in the east, further confirms the lack of a breeding population in the region.

Classic Project: Mount Rushmore National Memorial

One of the most recognisable symbols of the USA, the Mount Rushmore National Memorial granit sculpture in South Dakota's Black Hills.

Stream sediment geochemistry of the upper Cheyenne River watershed within the abandoned uranium mining region of the southern Black Hills, South Dakota, USA

Abandoned uranium (U) mine workings and tailings deposits are found throughout the southern Black Hills of South Dakota. The close proximity of the mine sites to the Cheyenne River (CR) appears to promote elevated metal and radionuclide transport within the watershed, however, the extent of their contribution is unknown. Sixty sediment and soil samples were collected from potentially impacted locations within the watershed to elucidate contaminant occurrence and transport mechanisms. The degree of sediment contaminant impacts were assessed by establishing enrichment factors (EF) and pollution load indices (PLI) criterion as compared to non-mining impacted reference sites. Herron classifications suggest that the sediments collected from the southern Black Hills are immature, consistent with the presence of detrital feldspar. Generally, sediment Sr content were found depleted and intermittently enriched in Rb/Sr ratios compared to upper continental crust concentrations, suggesting physical weathering mechanisms predominate within the CR catchment up gradient of the Angostura Reservoir. Increasing EF and PLI indices coupled with low strontium (Sr) values suggest sediment contamination found along the CR and Angostura Reservoir delta appear attributed to anthropogenic activities and not natural weathering processes.

Motivations of Female Black Hills Deer Hunters

ABSTRACTState fish and wildlife agencies are particularly interested in attracting female participation because of the potential to offset declining participation in hunting. Understanding female hunters’ motivations will be critical for designing effective recruitment and retention programs for women hunters. Although female participation in hunting is increasing, males still outnumber females by about tenfold. Gender differences in deer hunters were explored by comparing ratings of eight motivations (social, nature, excitement, meat, challenge, trophy, extra hunting opportunity, and solitude). Hunter types were defined by hunters’ selection of the most important motivation for why they like Black Hills deer hunting. Overall, females and males were relatively similar in their ratings of the eight motivations, and we found 85% gender similarity in the selection of the most important motivation. Women were slightly more motivated by the food aspect of the hunt while men placed slightly more value on the hunt as a sporting activity.

How connectivity shapes genetic structure during range expansion: Insights from the Virginia's Warbler

ABSTRACT Species range expansions facilitated by global climate change have been documented across many taxa. The ecological and evolutionary costs of range expansion in response to climate change are beginning to be teased apart, and have the potential to be strikingly different among taxa experiencing different types of range expansion across highly variable landscapes. We investigated how population expansion and connectivity have affected genetic diversity in the Virginia's Warbler (Oreothlypis virginiae), a recent colonist of the Black Hills of South Dakota, USA. To investigate population connectivity, we sampled Virginia's Warbler across their breeding range. Genetic data from the mtDNA NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 (ND2) gene and 7 polymorphic microsatellite loci were used to characterize structure within and among populations and to investigate genetic variability associated with connectivity. The analyses suggested little genetic differentiation, minimal population structure, and similar mtDNA hap...

Karst and Caves of the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA

The caves of the Black Hills are located in Carboniferous limestone and dolomite of the Madison Formation in western South Dakota. The climate is semi-arid, and surface karst features are few. Entrances to known caves are rather small, and the two largest caves, Wind Cave and Jewel Cave, were discovered only in the late 1880s and in 1900, respectively. Intermittent exploration and mapping have been conducted by local volunteers, National Park Service staff, and the National Speleological Society. Jewel Cave, in Jewel Cave National Monument, contains 290 km of mapped passages; and Wind Cave, in Wind Cave National Park, contains 230 km. They are the third and sixth longest known caves in the world.

Genetic structure of a disjunct peripheral population of mountain sucker Pantosteus jordani in the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA

A peripheral population of mountain sucker, Pantosteus jordani, located in the Black Hills of South Dakota, USA, represents the eastern-most range of the species and is completely isolated from other populations. Over the last 50 years, mountain sucker populations have declined in the Black Hills, and now only occur in 40 % of the historic local range, with densities decreasing by more than 84 %.We used microsatellite DNA markers to estimate genetic diversity and to assess population structure across five streams where mountain suckers persist. We evaluated results in the context of recent ecological surveys to inform decisions about mountain sucker conservation. Significant allele frequency differences existed among sample streams (Global FST = 0.041) but there was no evidence of isolation by distance. Regionally, genetic effective size, Ne, was estimated to be at least 338 breeding individuals, but Ne within streams was expected to be less. Despite almost complete demographic isolation and reduced population size, there appears to be little evidence of inbreeding, but genetic drift and local isolation due to fragmentation probably best explains genetic structure in this peripheral mountain sucker population. Recommended strategies for population enhancement include restoration of stream connectivity and habitat improvement. Moreover, repatriation and assisted movement (i.e., gene flow) of fishes should maximize genetic diversity in stream fragments in the Black Hills region.

Black Hills Forestry: A History. By John F. Freeman.

Black Hills Forestry: A History . By John F. Freeman. (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2015. xv + 246 pp. Illustrations, map, graph, notes, bibliography, index. $34.95.) For most of the United States, the Black Hills is the place with Mount Rushmore’s stone presidents’ heads, or perhaps Sturgis, where Harley-Davidson bikers gather. Even the historically inclined might first associate the Black Hills with the Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Great Sioux War. However, as John F. Freeman shows in his traditional narrative history, Black Hills Forestry , the Black Hills have also played an important role in national forestry policy in the United States. … jorth{at}calpoly.edu

Natural Hazard Assessment and Monitoring in the Black Hills and Adjacent Areas, South Dakota and Wyoming, USA, Using Remote Sensing and GIS-Methods

This research considers the support provided by remote sensing and GIS methods for the delineation of potential sites susceptible to natural hazards such as earthquakes, flash floods and karst phenomena in the Black Hills area in South Dakota and Wyoming, USA. By an integration of satellite data (Landsat, Sentinel), evaluations of digital elevation model data (DEM) and DEM derived morphometric maps, meteorological, geophysical and geological data in a GIS database an overview of potentially affected sites could be achieved. The analysis of digital enhanced satellite imageries, digital topographic data and open source geodata contributed to the acquisition of the specific tectonic, geomorphologic / topographic settings influencing local site Original Research Article

Influence of Didymosphenia geminata Blooms on Prey Composition and Associated Diet and Growth of Brown Trout

AbstractWe compared diet, stomach fullness, condition, and growth of Brown Trout Salmo trutta among streams with or without blooms of the benthic diatom Didymosphenia geminata in the Black Hills, South Dakota. In Rapid Creek, where D. geminata blooms covered ∼30% of the stream bottom, Brown Trout consumed fewer ephemeropterans (6–8% by weight) than individuals from two stream sections that have not had D. geminata blooms (Castle and Spearfish creeks; 13–39% by weight). In contrast, dipterans (primarily Chironomidae) represented a larger percentage of Brown Trout diets from Rapid Creek (D. geminata blooms present; 16–28% dry weight) compared with diets of trout from streams without D. geminata blooms (6–19% dry weight). Diets of small Brown Trout (100–199 mm TL) reflected the invertebrate species composition in benthic stream samples; in Rapid Creek, ephemeropterans were less abundant whereas dipterans were more abundant than in streams without D. geminata blooms. Stomach fullness and condition of Brown Trout from Rapid Creek were generally greater than those of Brown Trout from other populations. Linkages among invertebrate availability, diet composition, and condition of Brown Trout support the hypothesis that changes in invertebrate assemblages associated with D. geminata (i.e., more Chironomidae) could be contributing to high recruitment success for small Brown Trout in Rapid Creek.

Editor's Commentary: Honoring the Legacy of Elizabeth Cook-Lynn

Editor’s CommentaryHonoring the Legacy of Elizabeth Cook-Lynn James Riding In (bio) When Melanie K. Yazzie and Nick Estes approached me several years ago with the suggestion for a special issue of Wicazo Sa Review in honor of Elizabeth Cook-Lynn’s many accomplishments, I became ecstatic because these graduate students had recognized the significance of her intellectual contributions to our knowledge. Liz, as we call her, truly deserves such an acknowledgment of her accomplishments from the journal that she cofounded in 1985.1 Although now in her mid-eighties and living in the Black Hills near Rapid City, South Dakota, she continues to fiercely oppose the crippling effects of colonialism and anti-Indianism on Indian life and sovereignty. What should we expect? After all, she is legendary for her fervor to develop American Indian studies as a stand-alone academic discipline, criticism of academia for its flawed research methodologies and analyses pertaining to the history of Indian–white relations, scathing critiques of imperialistic U.S. Indian laws and policies, and promotion of Indian nationalism as a strategy of Indian survival as distinct, self-governing political entities. In this commentary, I will share a few of my memories about the role that Cook-Lynn played in the creation of the American Indian studies program at Arizona State University (ASU). I had the good fortune to meet her on February 8, 1993, at Scottsdale Community College on the Salt River Pima and Maricopa Indian Community in Arizona during a regional hearing of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs about amending the “toothless” American Indian Religious [End Page 5] Freedom Act of 1978. Dr. Beatrice Medicine,2 a mutual friend, introduced us. Of course, I did not realize then that Cook-Lynn and her writings would have such a lasting influence on my views about what American Indian studies should be.3 Cook-Lynn’s association with ASU started in the late 1990s. As Dr. Carol Chiago Lujan, I, and others began the work of developing an AIS program, we called on Cook-Lynn for her expertise and leadership in this area. She subsequently agreed to come to campus during several spring semesters in the capacity of a visiting professor. During meetings and one-on-one conversations, she spoke with eloquence and authority about the defensive, regulatory, and transformative roles of AIS while stressing that AIS must be grounded on the principles of sovereignty and indigenousness.4 With the support of the ASU administration and our allies, we have built a stand-alone program with its own paradigm, faculty, curriculum, methodologies, journal, conference, and undergraduate and graduate programs.5 Our curriculum has grown to include a rich array of course offerings about matters such as U.S. Indian law, U.S. policy, human rights, governance, repatriation and sacred place issues, colonization/decolonization, human rights, health, historical trauma, activism, leadership, economic development, intellectualism, and language. Our eight full-time faculty members, all citizens of various Indian nations, earned doctorates in AIS, history, philosophy, education, sociology, and social work.6 Adhering to a Cook-Lynn tenet,7 we faculty members view our research, teaching, and service as a “‘sacred’ responsibility to Indian nations undertaken for the sake of cultural survival.”8 Essentially then, the AIS model at ASU is tacitly grounded in the notion that being an AIS professor is substantially more than an eight-to-five job: it is a way of life that entails a willingness to make sacrifices for the common good. We strive to equip our students with a useful set of skills for success in various employment settings with practical and intellectual knowledge of Indian issues. Some of our undergraduate alumni have entered graduate studies and law school while others have found employment in the public and private sectors. Of particular note, Stephen Roe Lewis, a 2005 graduate, is now completing his first term as the governor of the Gila River Indian Community in Arizona.9 Graduates of our relatively new master’s program are finding similar opportunities. Over the years, ASU’s administrative support for AIS and other Indian-focused programs has grown. On August 31, 2015, President Michael M. Crow sent an...

Guest Editors' Introduction: Essentializing Elizabeth Cook-Lynn

Guest editors’ IntroductionEssentializing Elizabeth Cook-Lynn Melanie K. Yazzie (bio) and Nick Estes (bio) There are no two sides to this story. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, Interview with Nick Estes Badger is always in Dakota stories and he is always asked many questions even though he is not important . . . But, he always has something to say . . . he always has an answer . . . Sometimes he is right but, just as often, he is wrong. Quite wrong. But what he does, you see, is . . . he keeps the plot moving . . . Without him, you see, the story would come to an early and unsatisfactory end. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn, Notebooks of Elizabeth Cook-Lynn ON HISTORY In July 2013, we sat down with Elizabeth Cook-Lynn at a restaurant in downtown Rapid City, South Dakota. Nick got to know “Liz” (as she is known to colleagues and friends) through their mutual work to address pervasive anti-Indian racism in Rapid City. Until meeting her that day Melanie had never spoken with Liz, despite having written a [End Page 9] master’s thesis on Cook-Lynn’s role in shaping American Indian intellectual history. Even before fully understanding the profound impact she had on our maturation as scholars, activists, and committed Native nationalists, we were both long-time students of Cook-Lynn. We were extremely familiar with her foundational role in the development of American Indian studies and her unwavering commitment to the livelihood of Native people and nations. Between us, we had read, used, and cherished her entire oeuvre of fictional and nonfictional work. Our three-hour conversation with Liz on that humid summer afternoon in “the heart of everything that is,” He Sapa (the Black Hills), will endure as a high point for both of us in our careers as Native scholars. Even though we covered many topics, historical eras, and biographical details during our conversation with Liz, one particular comment of hers stood out. We were mocking the prevailing expectation that scholarship on Native history must maintain “objectivity” by counterbalancing Native perspectives with those advanced by a U.S. national narrative, though this expectation never operates the other way around. In the frank and eloquent style for which she is known, she stated, “There are no two sides to this story.” Although much has changed in academia and its treatment of Native peoples and their histories, it is still assumed that the notion of objectivity guides the social and hard sciences and history toward attaining “truth.” Objectivity, or the popular idiom that “there are always two sides to every story,” implies that disciplines like history exist in a politically and historically unbiased vacuum, untarnished by their imperial and colonial origins as instruments of power and domination. Cook-Lynn’s unequivocal proclamation that there is only one side to history forces the trope of objectivity out of the arena of assumption and places it as an object of critique within a long-standing and deeply rooted tradition of Native intellectual history that predates, endures, and challenges U.S. colonial occupation. In so doing, she forces scholars of history to contend with the prior and ongoing existence of Native people and political entities in the lands and histories of the United States that it has claimed as its own only through imperial conquest.1 Cook-Lynn noted during our conversation she has been dismissed as an “essentialist” by other scholars many times for proclamations like “there are no two sides to this story.” She chuckled about this. Anyone in the humanities who does what could be considered critical work knows that being labeled an essentialist can sometimes be seen as (and sometimes is) an academic death sentence. We observed how often the label of essentialism has tended to undermine the entire purpose of American Indian studies to emphatically and unapologetically defend and foster tribal survival. Cook-Lynn has long used the term “survival” to describe the purpose of American Indian studies. In New Indians, Old Wars, she offers one of her many meditations on survival, posing the [End Page 10] question, “How can a native people survive within and alongside their historical oppressors?” She goes on to state that this “is not a rhetorical question. It...