Black Gloss Research Articles

Athenian Black Gloss Pottery: A View from the West

SummaryExcavation of archaic Morgantina (c.700–450 BC), Sicily, has brought to light a significant pattern in the distribution of imported Greek pottery. This pattern, which shows a preference for imports with features that referred to metal vessels, is echoed at sites around the western Mediterranean. We argue that the preference for certain types was communicated back to Greek producers, and that it also reflects the particular local interests of non‐Greeks, who associated metallic features not only with wealth, but also with their own ancestral traditions.

Compositional Characteristics of Athenian Black Gloss Slips (5th c. B.C.)

Extended abstract of a paper presented at Microscopy and Microanalysis 2013 in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, August 4 – August 8, 2013.

Dual Energy Computed Tomography for the Non‐destructive Analysis of Ancient Ceramics

Ceramics are usually the most common artefact found on any ancient archaeological site. Compositional analysis of this pottery, and characterization of the clay fabrics from which they are made, has the potential to pinpoint sources of manufacture as well as identify trade routes and consumption patterns in the ancient world. Currently, most analytical techniques require the partial or total destruction of the ceramic sample. This research investigates the use of dual energy computed tomography (DECT) to analyse Black Gloss and Vesuvian Sigillata from Pompeii. The results indicate that DECT may be a viable adjunct or alternative to conventional analytical techniques. Importantly, unlike traditional methods, DECT is totally non‐destructive, a highly significant factor when analysing irreplaceable artefacts.

Ceramic coatings in ancient times: high technology surface modification technologies

Ceramic coatings on ancient pottery, in particular black gloss, transparent glaze (first alkali based and then lead based) and opaque glaze (enamel) up to the lustre decoration, can be considered as the top technological skill of ancient ceramists. Indeed, their production demands the ceramist a thorough knowledge of pyrotechnology, including the ability to strictly control furnace atmosphere conditions. Several papers have dealt with the study of ceramic coatings, aiming to reconstruct the production technology and the modality of application and to define the relations between coating and ceramic body. These tasks are quite difficult to accomplish, also due to the very fine details of these surface layers. A multianalytical approach is therefore necessary, including conventional (scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive spectrometry, electron probe microanalyser and Raman) and high resolution techniques (high resolution TEM, synchrotron radiation source based diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy). Two case studies on different ceramic coatings are presented: black gloss pottery from Northern Etruria and Sienese ‘Archaic’ majolica from Tuscany.

SEM-EDS ANALYSIS AS A RAPID TOOL FOR DISTINGUISHING CAMPANIAN A WARE AND SICILIAN IMITATIONS

The aim of this work is to examine whether it is possible to find chemical markers that allow a distinction to be made between the imported black glossed ‘Campanian A’ and the Sicilian imitation (end of fourth to first century bc) of these productions by carrying out quantitative chemical microanalysis of the slip using the SEM–EDS technique. The efficiency of the proposed analytical method has been tested on a set of ceramic samples corresponding to Sicilian black gloss imitations whose ceramic body has already been characterized petrographically by thin-section microscopy and chemically by XRF. The analytical data point to Na2O as a suitable chemical marker to distinguish between original ‘Campanian A’ imported from the Gulf of Naples area and Sicilian imitations of the same forms of Hellenistic pottery. In order to verify the above result, the enrichment factors (EFs) between the raw clays, the corresponding ceramic body and black gloss slip were calculated. Some differences in the patterns of EFs between original ‘Campanian A’ and Sicilian imitations were recognized and explained. Therefore, the obtained results can help to accomplish a first distinction between imported and local material on a firm analytical basis, working on a statistically significant number of individuals.

Diversified production of red figured pottery in Apulia (Southern Italy) in the late period

Late Apulian red figured pottery [1] from Egnatia (Fasano, Brindisi, Italy) was studied in order to widen the view on this ceramic class in Southern Italy. Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) provided the samples elemental composition that allowed to make provenance hypotheses. Optical Microscopy (OM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS), supplied information about the minero-petrographic features of the objects to better understand their production technology. The set of results highlighted the contemporary presence in the Apulian land in the late 4th century BC of both local and imported finds and showed the existence of two different kinds of local production, the “classic” Attic and a peculiar one, characterized by the application of an engobe layer before the black gloss. Our previous studies resulted in the discovery that an engobe layer, with similar chemical and minero-petrographic characteristics, was present in finds from another site in central Apulia (Monte Sannace). So the discovery of red engobe on fragments from Egnatia, proves that its use was not an isolated occurrence, but was quite common in the production of red figured in Apulia during the Late period, appearing as a peculiar technological mark of Apulian potters.

Technological and geochemical study of two red-figured vases of unknown provenance by various analytical techniques

Two red-figured vases, kindly provided by the Carabinieri Corps for Protection of Cultural Heritage, Cosenza Unit (Calabria, Italy), were characterised from petrographical, morphological, mineralogical, and chemical viewpoints with the aim of establishing the definite origin and source area of archaeological artefacts. It was obvious that one of the vases had undergone restoration, which is not documented. On the basis of stylistic criteria, it was not possible to assign precisely the site of production of the figured vases. Petrographic analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies were carried out with the aim of identifying technological features and defining the nature of coatings. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) revealed that some protective products had been used in previous restoration processes on some portions of one of the two finds. The samples have similar features: fine texture of the ceramic body, and black gloss painted directly on it. One of the samples is characterised by the black coating typical of both Attic and Locrian pottery. A study of their composition excluded the possibility that they are of Greek production. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) data revealed that they come exclusively from the Locride area in Calabria, Southern Italy.

Technological features of ‘gnathia’ pottery

Abstract‘Gnathia’ pottery samples, dating back to the mid‐fourth and third century BC, from the archaeological site of Egnazia (Fasano, Brindisi, Italy) have been characterised from the physical‐chemical, mineralogical and morphological points of view. Optical and scanning electron microscopy, X‐ray energy‐dispersive spectroscopy and X‐ray diffraction analyses have been carried out on the ceramic body, black gloss, white, yellow and red over‐paintings of fragments, with the aim of outlining technological features and defining the nature of coatings and decorations. Analytical results confirm from both a technological and morphological/decorative point of view the close relationship between ‘Gnathia’ pottery and red figured pottery, particularly with the Apulian red figured from which it takes its inspiration. At the same time the experimental results highlight shared characteristics and differences with both Attic and Apulian red figured productions. The biggest difference is in the utilisation of the ‘ingobbio rosso’ layer that covers the ceramic body. This does not seem to be based on aesthetic grounds, as in the case of Apulian red figured pottery, but on application of acquired production processes, since ‘Gnathia’ pottery was made in the same workshops as red figured pottery. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

CHARACTERIZATION OF CORAL RED SLIPS ON GREEK ATTIC POTTERY*

Samples of red and black gloss from Greek Attic pottery of the late sixth to fifth centuries bc were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM and FIB/STEM). The focus of the study was the chemical and microstructural characterization of the red gloss that was first produced during this period. Two groupings of red gloss were revealed. One red was found to be compositionally similar to the black glosses (labelled ‘LCM coral red’). The other red showed more significant chemical differences, such as higher calcium and magnesium, in comparison to the black (labelled ‘HCM coral red’). The existence of two chemically distinct reds—otherwise identical in colour and texture—suggests that there was more than one source of clay available to the Attic potters for producing red.

Spectral properties and surface uniformity of black glass gloss references

Commercial glossmeters are usually provided with a gloss reference. In some cases the reference is derived from black glass. Light reflection from the reference depends both on the complex refractive index and on the surface quality, such as the roughness and the cleanness of the reflecting surface, of the black glass. If we want to obtain accurate data on gloss or the minute gloss mottling of an object, we must be certain of the optical properties and surface quality of the reference in regard to reliable gloss analysis. In this study the complex refractive index of a gloss reference, as a function of wavelength, was measured with an ellipsometer, and the reflectance at standardized gloss measurement angles was calculated for the case of nonpolarized light. We show that the gloss reference has a substantial extinction coefficient, which must be considered in accurately describing the reflectance of the reference. Furthermore, the gloss variation of the reference was detected with a diffractive-optical-element-based glossmeter by scanning the reference surface at normal light incidence. We observed that the reference had rather high gloss mottling and consider the reasons for it.

Styling Romanisation: Pottery and Society in Central Italy by Roman E. Roth

BOOKREVIEWS/COMPTES RENDUS 429 Styling Romanisation: Pottery and Society in Central Italy. By Roman E. Roth. New York: CambridgeUniversityPress. 2007. Pp. 237. Styling Romanisation is a revision of Roth's doctoral dissertation (University of Cam bridge, 2003), devised as "an exercise in making pottery work as a source for understanding important historical issues" (1)?in this case, analyzing black-gloss wares to study "how the Romanisation of Italy affected the behaviour of regional and, in particular, non-elite populations in different areas of non-formalised, social discourse" (38). Roth has chosen black-gloss wares because their "cultural meaning is in many ways conditioned by their cheapness and wide use" (1); that is, theygive insightinto a broad spectrumof the population rather than simply the elite, whose influences and priorities were not necessarily those of thepeople at large. Rather thanfocusingon themost highlycrafted vessels, Roth is specifically interested in the more common products that were both produced and distributed within central Tyrrhenian Italy from the early second century b.c. onwards (7). This region's adoption of black-gloss wares was part of a homogenous development throughout much of Italy (Chapters Two andThree), yetRoth's specificcase studiesof locally-produced potteryatVolterra (ChapterFour) and Capena (ChapterFive) high light the heterogeneous circumstances and adaptations that simultaneously occurred at themicro level (Chapter Six). As such,Roth has produced awork that will appeal to social and economic historians, ceramicists, and archaeologists in general. The author's thoughtful testing ofvarioushypothesesandmodels, including ones drawnfromsociology and other disciplines, also makes this study a useful educational tool for graduate stu dents. The firsthalf of thebook isdevoted to reviewingthemain argumentssurrounding Romanization (Chapter One) and thestudy ofblack-glosspottery(Chapter Two), setting up Roth's own methods (Chapter Three). In Chapter One, "Romanisation," Roth asserts that so much scholarship has been devoted to arguing about this term that it has now become a neutraland usefuldescriptor, divestedof itsoriginalbaggage (10). This view seems premature.1 Roth's own definition of Romanization becomes clear through his critique of recent models of Romanization (particularly those ofMario Torelli, Martin Millet, Greg Woolf, and Nicola Terrenato), combined with concepts of "social power" and individualagency (especiallyfollowing AnthonyGiddens's CentralProblemsinSocial Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis [Basingstoke and London 1979]). Chapter Two pays tribute to the contributions of the two pre-eminent black gloss specialists, Nino Lamboglia and Jean-Paul Morel, but also points out how their individual research aims limit their applicability here. For instance, in his Ceramique campanienne (Rome 1981),Morel was interested in thebroad socio-economic implications ofpopular types. On the basis of observingwidespread standardization, Morel concluded that production was controlled by the elite, but carried out by a slave or otherwise oppressed labour force which had no creative input into its products. Morel's study was never intended to address the situationat the localor regionallevel, which is where Roth's investigation takes over. In Roth's view, it is precisely at those lower levels that one can assess not onlyhow controlledproductionactually was, but also howmuch variability existedin the consumption and use of vessels from one area to the next (59-60). Roth contends that the adoption ofblack-glosspotteryand itsplace in thecommunity were the resultof local, 1 See, for instance, my review of H. E. M. Cool's Eating and Drinking in Roman Britain (Cambridge 2007) in Mouseion51 (2007)171-174. 430 PHOENIX socially-informed decisions, rather than submission to the elite or to a blanket Roman fashion. In the second half of the book, Roth presents his case studies and conclusions. His study of the ceramics from Volterra (Chapter Four) reveals that, in the second century B.C., local black-gloss potters split their focus into two branches, one following themore formal, Volterran heritage of fine ware production and the other introducing a grittier fabric for turning out larger quantitiesofvessels, the shapesofwhichwere largelyinspired by local plain and coarse wares. With these products, individual non-elite households began to have two sets of locally-made black gloss wares, one in a mediocre fabric for routine use, and a second in a less common, finer ware for special occasions and more specialised usage. Roth argues that, since the products carried different associations, those made in the mediocre fabric cannot...

Technological features of Apulian red figured pottery

Apulian red figured pottery samples, dating back to the 5th and 4th centuries BC, from the archaeological site of Monte Sannace (Gioia del Colle, Bari, Italy) have been characterized from the physical–chemical, mineralogical and morphological points of view. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and atomic spectroscopy investigations have been carried out on the ceramic body, red decorated area and black gloss of the fragments, with the aim of outlining the technological features and of defining the nature of coatings and decorations. All 5th century fragments show the same features: fine texture of the ceramic body, red figures saved from the ceramic paste and black gloss painted directly on the ceramic body. The statistical treatment of compositional data of ceramic bodies excludes the local production of these objects. As regards the 4th century fragments, some show similar features to the 5th century ones; however others are characterized by the coarse texture of their ceramic body and an intermediate red layer of finer clay between the black gloss and the ceramic body. The analytical results make it possible to distinguish two different production technologies of red figured Apulian vases in Monte Sannace during the 4th century BC. Certain vases were produced using the “classic” Attic technology and others with a different technique, not previously known, which involved the application of a red engobe layer on the clay paste, before the black gloss painting.

Trace Element Indicators of Fabrication Technology for Coral Red and Black Gloss Decoration on Greek Attic Pottery

AbstractLaser ablation inductively coupled plasma time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-TOFMS) was used to study the trace element chemistry of coral red and black gloss slip decoration on Greek Attic pottery (6th century BC). The distribution of trace elements in the body fabric and glaze slips were found to be correlated suggesting the raw materials came from a single source. Furthermore, the so-called high calcium and magnesium (HCM) coral red was found to be a less refined material than black gloss, with trace element characteristics suggestive of a carbonate phase in the raw material. This carbonate component may have imparted refractory properties to the HCM coral red slip material during the three-stage oxidative-reductive-oxidative firing used to produce Attic pottery, allowing it to remain porous and re-oxidize during the final firing step, thus creating its final red color. The so-called low calcium and magnesium (LCM) coral red, on the other hand, was found to be more refined than the HCM coral red slip which suggests that two separate firings would have been needed to produce the red color of this material.

A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION ON THE PROVENANCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF A BLACK‐FIGURE AMPHORA ATTRIBUTED TO THE PRIAM GROUP*

The restoration of a Greek black‐figure amphora provided an opportunity to study the provenance and production technology of the vase. The composition of the ceramic body, determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP–OES), matches that of Attic products. Investigation by X‐ray diffraction and reflectance spectroscopy suggests a maximum firing temperature around 900°C and a body re‐oxidation temperature around 800°C, respectively. The morphology and composition of black, red and dark red surface areas were studied by scanning electron microscopy and X‐ray energy‐dispersive analysis; the black areas show the features of a typical well‐vitrified black gloss, while the red areas were most probably obtained by simple burnishing of the body; the dark red additions, on the other hand, are the likely result of a partial re‐oxidation of a clay–ochre mixture.

THE ALPS—A BARRIER OR A PASSAGE FOR CERAMIC TRADE?*

The Alpsas a barrier: ceramic remnants of the so‐called Laugen‐Melaun culture (c. 11th to c. sixth centuries bc) can be found in the northern Italy (Trentino/Alto Adige)—eastern Switzerland—Liechtenstein and western Austria region. A petrographic study of 454 sherds from this area covering a time span of 500 years reveals the following. (1) The pottery from the Trentino/Alto Adige contains a predominantly volcanic temper, which can be linked to the volcanic rocks of the Bolzano area—in other words, to the core region of this culture. This material is therefore of a local/regional production. (2) These ceramics were imported from the Bolzano region to southeastern Switzerland (the Inn Valley) and the amount of imported pottery decreases markedly from the 11th century bc (approximately 70% imported) to the seventh to sixth centuries bc (approximately 10% imported). (3) No imported pottery can be detected north of the Alpine crest in Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austria, and in this region serpentinite temper was preferred by ancient potters. These results demonstrate that long‐lasting contacts and ceramic trade existed between the populations of the Inn Valley and the Trentino/Alto Adige. Such contacts could have been motivated by intermarriages between the two populations and/or economic exchange. The potters north of the Alpine ridge adopted the Laugen‐Melaun style and produced such pottery locally. The use of serpentinite temper is puzzling and not related to any technological advantage. (Could it be recycled material? Or does it have any sociocultural specificity?) The Alps as a passage: 59 fragments of a black gloss ware, the so‐called Campana, unearthed at 11 Late Latene sites (second to first centuries bc) in Switzerland and neighbouring Germany were analysed chemically by X‐ray fluorescence. The results revealed: (1) that all of them were produced either in Italy or Lyon and then exported to the north; (2) that two principal south–north exchange routes existed, (a) fluviatile, along the Rhône–Rhine corridor and (b) trans‐Alpine, using the Alpine passes, such as the Simplon and the Grand St Bernard.

The role of Raman microspectroscopy in the study of black gloss coatings on Roman pottery

Raman microspectroscopy was adopted for the study of black gloss coatings on Roman pottery, found in Rimini (northern Italy) and in Suasa, near Ancona (central Italy), dated second century B.C. This non-destructive technique allowed a very accurate analysis of the crystalline and amorphous components of thin surface layers. The investigated coating is black, homogeneous and glazed, without any crystals, becoming red on approaching to the ceramic body. Magnetite and carbon are the main phases of the black zones, whereas hercynite, quartz, silicates and haematite are the secondary components. In the red zones, approaching the ceramic body, the amount of haematite increases and the amount of magnetite decreases. The presence of carbon, on the surface only, confirms the hypothesis of a firing cycle in a partial reducing atmosphere. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Technology of production of red figure pottery from Attic and southern Italian workshops

Samples from Greek figure vases were investigated by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis, X-ray diffraction, thermomechanical analysis and reflectance spectroscopy to achieve a technological characterisation. The vases, dating from the end of the sixth to the fourth century BC, had been excavated at Locri Epizephiri (Calabria, Italy) and attributed to Attic or local workshops, respectively. Information on the morphology of black slip areas and firing temperatures was compared with that previously obtained for Attic and local black gloss pottery from the same site; results show that the peculiar technique required for the production of black slips was mastered by both Attic and local potters and employed for monochrome and figured products. The black coating is usually well vitrified and 15- to 20-microm thick; the evaluated maximum firing temperature is around 900 degrees C, while a temperature lower than 800 degrees C is generally estimated for ceramic body re-oxidation.

Tuscan black glosses: A mineralogical characterization by high resolution techniques

Tuscan black glosses on ancient pottery have been characterized using high resolution techniques. Ancient (4 th -1 st century B.C.) pottery from southern and northern Tuscany is coated with black glosses which show different visual appearance. Misfired red-black, matt, shining, metallic, and bluish black glosses have been studied with X-ray diffraction, scanning and transmission electron microscopes to establish their mineralogical, textural and chemical characteristics. The glosses are chemically homogeneous and they are all comprised of a Si-Al rich, amorphous matrix where nanometer-sized crystals of different nature are embedded. Crystals occur both as euhedral grains and as grains with a high aspect ratio. The misfired gloss contains hematite as the only mineral phase, both in the red and black portion of the coating. The matt black gloss contains mainly homogeneous hercynite crystals. In a small portion of the gloss, few magnetite crystals have been detected. However, no gradual variations either along or perpendicular to the gloss layer have been observed. Magnetite is the only mineral phase occurring in the shining metallic black gloss. The bluish-black gloss shows spinel grains with variable characteristics. Most grains are comprised of homogeneous hercynite with magnetite in solid solution. Other crystals are zoned: the core has hercynitic composition with relatively high content in magnetite, ulvospinel, and spinel s.s. in solid solution; Al and Mg increases towards the rim. These results clearly indicate that microanalytical techniques provide accurate mineralogical and microtextural characterizations at the nanometer scale. It has been shown that visually different glosses have different mineralogy which are mainly caused by different oxygen fugacities (f O2 ) during firing.

Black Gloss Pottery: Production Sites and Technology in Northern Etruria, Part II: Gloss Technology

The present study aims to understand the reasons for the visual differences of black gloss pottery found in northern Etruria. The results obtained by conventional (scanning electron microscope, electron microprobe) and synchrotron (X‐ray diffraction, X‐ray absorption spectroscopy) techniques indicate that the thickness, porosity or chemical composition of the different types of gloss cannot be used as the principal distinguishing factor. The size of quartz or feldspar crystals may well be a critical factor responsible for the matt effect in some samples, while the range of mixtures of iron compounds indicated by XRD and XAS could be the reason for differences in colour and reflectivity. The Fe L‐edge XAS results in particular show that a correlation does exist between the oxidation state characteristics and the visual appearance. The Si, Fe and Al contents seem to further discriminate the different types of gloss that have differing visual appearances.

Black Gloss Pottery: Production Sites and Technology in Northern Etruria, Part I: Provenance Studies

The object of the present study is an assemblage of 149 black gloss pottery samples found in northern Etruria (Tuscany, Italy), at Arezzo, Volterra, Chiusi and Populonia. Complete chemical analyses have been performed for the whole set of samples, whereas mineralogical characterization has been provided for most of the Volterra, Chiusi and Populonia samples. The Chiusi‐Marcianella production site has been the further object of a detailed study aimed at the creation of a complete reference group. Moreover, several trade routes have been reconstructed, shedding light on the import and export of these ceramics from inland Etruria to the coast and vice versa.