Black Fathers Research Articles

Daddy�s Girl: Understanding the Impact of Black Fathers on the Social and Emotional Development of Raising Black Daughters

Daddy�s Girl: Understanding the Impact of Black Fathers on the Social and Emotional Development of Raising Black Daughters

Black fathers' personal histories, worldviews, and fathering behaviors

AbstractObjectiveWe examined links between boyhood and fatherhood in a thematic analysis of Black men's narratives about their childhood histories, connection of these experiences to their views about fathering, and descriptions of their fathering relationships and behaviors.BackgroundThere remains a critical need to understand how Black men father in a sociohistorical context that defines them as absent or deficient.MethodWe conducted in‐depth, semistructured qualitative interviews with 30 Black fathers with children in 4‐year‐old kindergarten through grade 12 education. We used life course theory and an integrative model of child development as conceptual frameworks to guide a mixed deductive–inductive analysis.ResultsWe identified three categories and seven themes within the categories: Personal History (Intergenerational Relationships, Negotiating Race and Racism, Turning Points), Fathering Worldview (Being a Father: The Nurturer, The Educator; Fathering Black Children), and Fathering Relationships and Behaviors (Father–Child Interaction, Racial Armoring). We also identified fathers' explicit connections of their Personal Histories to their Fathering Worldviews and, thereby, their Fathering Relationships and Behaviors.ConclusionThis article addresses ways that Black men make sense of their personal histories and connect these histories to how they raise their children.ImplicationsThis discussion of intergenerational linking of lives and turning points has significant implications for understanding Black family development in the racialized context of the United States and highlights the need for comprehensive mental health support for Black men and their families that focuses on racial trauma along with conceptual and empirical focus on impacts of anti‐Blackness on individual and family well‐being.

Ottawa, Canada

Ever since we started the Mental Health for Everyone Project, I have been frequently approached by Black individuals across Canada, often after they have seen other psychologists or psychiatrists. They describe the care they have received as culturally inappropriate, racist, or both. I have been particularly intrigued by one group who contact me: young Black fathers between 30 and 40 years old who describe their psychological distress, while apologising for feeling bad, like this 36-year-old man who wrote, “I'm sorry, but I am very sad.

Perceptions of adolescents' racial discrimination experiences, racial identity, and depressive symptoms among Black American fathers.

This study examined whether Black American fathers' perceptions of their adolescents' experiences of racial discrimination were related to fathers' depressive symptoms and if this association was moderated by fathers' racial identity beliefs and adolescent gender. Racial discrimination is not only an individual-level but also a family-level stressor for Black families. Racial discrimination experienced by parents can spillover to influence their children; however, fewer studies have examined how adolescents' discrimination experiences relate to parents' psychological outcomes, especially among Black fathers. Data were collected via online survey from 240 Black fathers (Mage = 45.93 years, SD = 8.72) of adolescents (Mage = 14.44 years, SD = 2.11) residing in the United States. Participants completed questions about their racial identity beliefs and depressive symptoms, as well as their adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination. Regression analyses revealed that adolescent-experienced racial discrimination was directly associated with fathers' depressive symptoms. Fathers whose race was more central to them (racial centrality) had higher depressive symptoms when their adolescents had high racial discrimination experiences. Also, fathers' beliefs about how Black people are viewed by society (public regard) moderated the relation between adolescent-experienced racial discrimination and fathers' depressive symptoms differently based on adolescent gender. Adolescent gender also moderated the relation between fathers' personal feelings about being Black (private regard) and their depressive symptoms. Overall, fathers' beliefs about their race, as well as the gender of their adolescents, play a role in their psychological health when their adolescents experience discrimination.

BLACK FATHERS' KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDES ABOUT TOXIC STRESS

To help address the disproportionate rates of early childhood adversity within the Black community, this study set out to assess African American fathers’ knowledge and attitudes about toxic stress, its effect on neurodevelopment, and resilience factors, as well as their receptivity to engaging in research that addresses mental health disparities associated with early childhood. Sixteen self-identified Black adult males (mean age: 39 years) with children 18 years old or younger watched a 6-minute animated video about toxic stress, neurodevelopment, and resilience, and engaged in focus groups to assess their attitudes about these topics. Pre- and postsurvey questionnaires were used to quantify knowledge gained. Participants additionally completed the original and expanded Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) and Benevolent Childhood Experiences (BCE) questionnaires. All participants experienced at least 1 ACE (M: 3.5), one expanded ACE (M: 6.3), and 1 BCE (M: 8.5). Confidence in being able to explain toxic stress and its effects to others increased (M = 2.8, SD = 0.98 vs M = 3.5, SD = 0.82; p = 0.036), as did knowledge that genes, environment, and experiences together affect child cognitive, social, and emotional development (M = 10.44, SD = 1.8 vs M = 12.3, SD = 1.4; p = 0.002). Qualitative themes related to toxic stress included the perpetuation of historical and intergenerational trauma, parental stress of managing systemic barriers (ie, racial discrimination, financial inequities, incarceration), and challenges within co-parenting relationships. Protective themes included the need for early parental education about the effects of toxic stress, positive imagery of Black fatherhood, and the resilience of Black fathers and the Black community as a whole. This study yielded insights into Black fathers’ perspectives about culturally specific contributors and protective factors of childhood toxic stress that are not currently addressed by evidence-based practices. These data, and the paucity of purposeful inclusion of fathers in early childhood prevention and intervention programs, represent gaps in current program design and implementation, and highlight the need for more father engagement and community-partnered participatory collaborations to improve mental health outcomes of children.

Herstoria eksperymentalna: Miss La La

Anna Olga Brown is a figure who became known in history as Miss Lala. Strong „African Princess”, „Black Venus”, with iron jaws which could hold the weight of several people as well as an exploding cannon. Her trapeze stunts were admired on the biggest European stages. She was born in Szczecin, to a black father and a white mother; the youngest of four siblings. She lived in a time of colonialism and racism. At a time when women still had no right to vote and their role was restricted to the private sphere. Her muscular, circus body went beyond the normative canons of female beauty and with its strength challenged dominant beliefs. It fascinated and disturbed. For advertising purposes it was alternately normalized and exoticised. Her biography is full of blank pages, uncertainties, and speculations. The following article is another attempt to read herstory, conducted within the framework of experimental history.

Father–child attachment in Black families: Risk and protective processes

ABSTRACT Theoretical and empirical work on Black fathering has been grounded in a deficit perspective. Scholarship has focused on absenteeism and incarceration of Black fathers, neglecting their positive roles as well as the structural inequalities and challenges Black fathers face. This paper highlights the significance of positive fathering in Black youth development, with a focus on the protective influences of attachment relationships. Structural and proximal processes that may support or undermine this relationship are delineated, as well as how theory and methods on attachment can be extended to support research on Black families and youth development. Culturally and contextually grounded research on Black fathering may lead to refinement in theory and measurement of attachment. Advancing research on father–child relationships in Black families requires greater attention to processes that promote positive fathering and strengthen father–child attachment bonds, particularly in the context of structural racism.

Struggling to Make Good: The Dilemmas of Fatherhood for Formerly Incarcerated African American Men

While some have argued that absent low socioeconomic status black fathers are to blame for urban crime and poverty, others have highlighted how mass incarceration disproportionately separates low socioeconomic status black fathers from their children. Less frequently heard and acknowledged in the public conversations about low socioeconomic status black fatherhood and mass incarceration are the voices of those same fathers who have been impacted by the system. How do formerly incarcerated black fathers view their role as fathers? Based on 30 interviews of formerly incarcerated black men recruited from a prisoner reentry organization in a large northeastern city in the United States, we found that interviewees talked about fatherhood in two different ways. On the one hand, our most common finding was that interviewees talked about fatherhood as a motivation for desistance from criminal activity. In this finding they connected provider roles and being present in the lives of their children with their planned desistance from crime. On the other hand, interviewees also mentioned fatherhood as a part of explanations for past criminal activity, in what we call strain narratives. In these stories, they typically mentioned their provider roles as fathers as part of the overall economic strain that they faced. Counter to the dominant cultural impression of low socioeconomic status black fathers as absent/uncaring, both the desistance and strain narratives demonstrated a considerable amount of concern with respect to their identities as fathers, and therefore as men. We argue for the significance of masculinity in explaining the fatherhood narratives of formerly incarcerated black men. In doing so, we build on previous qualitative work on low-income fathers, crime as doing gender, and desistance narratives in prisoner reentry.

Adverse childhood experiences and behavior problems among poor Black children: Nonresident father involvement and single mothers' parenting stress

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in early childhood and developmental outcomes during the middle childhood and adolescent years have been understudied among low-income Black families. ObjectiveTo test a model linking economic hardship, single mothers' parenting stress, ACEs, and nonresident fathers' involvement in early childhood to behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Participants and settingWe used six waves of longitudinal data from a subsample of 800 unmarried Black mothers, nonresident fathers, and their children (at child birth and ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15) from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a nationally representative data set. MethodStructural equation models with latent variables that incorporate path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were tested. ResultsMothers' economic hardship was associated directly with parenting stress (beta = 0.27, p < .001) and related both directly (beta = 0.22, p < .001) and indirectly (through parenting stress) to the children's increased likelihood of exposure to ACEs (indirect effect = 0.05, p < .001). Nonresident fathers' involvement early on (child's age 1 to 5) was associated directly with reductions in the mothers' economic hardship (beta = −0.18, p < .001), children's reduced exposure to ACEs (beta = −0.15, p < .001), and fewer behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence (beta = −0.10, p < .001). ConclusionNonresident Black fathers' involvement in single-mother families may buffer the adverse consequences over time for economically and socially disadvantaged Black children of exposure to ACEs in early childhood. Interventions that encourage sustained involvement by nonresident Black fathers with young children and their single mothers are recommended.

Impact of paternal presence and parental social-demographic characteristics on birth outcomes.

Maternal race, marital status, and social environment impact risk of preterm delivery and size for gestational age. Although some paternal characteristics such as age are associated with pregnancy outcomes, the influence of the paternal presence, race/ethnicity and adverse life events is not well known. The objective of the study was to assess birth outcomes in mothers with a paternal presence compared to those without during the post-partum period. The secondary aim was to determine whether paternal race is associated with birth outcomes. This was a cross-sectional study using parental surveys linked with birth certificate data from 2016 to 2018. Adverse birth composite outcomes (ABCO) including small for gestational age (SGA), prematurity or neonatal intensive care unit admission (NICU) were assessed. A total of 695 parents were analyzed (239 single mothers and 228 mother-father pairs). Compared to mothers with a father present, mothers without a father present exhibited increased odds of ABCO, prematurity and NICU. Non-Hispanic Black fathers had increased odds of ABCO and NICU compared to Non-Hispanic Whites (NHW). Hispanic fathers had increased odds of NICU compared to NHW. Paternal absence in the post-partum period and paternal race were both independently associated with ABCO and NICU. Assessment of paternal presence and paternal race in clinical practice may help identify opportunities for additional support necessary to optimize birth outcomes.

Humanizing relationships, practices, and research: using photo-elicitation narratives to humanize Black fathers and boys

The constant dehumanization of Black fathers and boys in the media, education, politics, pop culture, and society is traumatic. Deficit perspectives and a racialized political climate often negatively portray the moral, familial, and relational practices that Black fathers and boys engage in with their family members in their homes. Using humanizing research as a framework, we found how photo-elicitation interviews (PEIs) from two separate qualitative studies of a 39-year-old father and a 13-year-old boy helped to evoke deeper meaning and discussions of images of Black men and boys engaging in familial practices and reflecting on school-related events. We argue that humanizing images, especially of Black fathers and boys, can decolonize methodologies between the researcher and participant and provide a complex and unique understanding of Black fathers and boys in educational research. We offer suggestions for using PEI to influence research to build relationships and humanize participants’ stories and lives.

Racial/Ethnic Differences in 30-Year Trajectories of Cannabis Use among Males

Background: Given that cannabis is the most commonly used illicit substance in the US, continuous research on patterns of cannabis use over the life course can help to ensure progress towards improving public health and reducing health inequalities across race/ethnicity. Thus, we examine racial/ethnic differences in cannabis use trajectories among males across two overlapping stages of the life course. Methods: We use data from two companion studies, the Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS – a longitudinal cohort study that followed participants from adolescence into adulthood), and its intergenerational extension – the Rochester Intergenerational Study. For Life Stage 1, we consider cannabis use during the transition from adolescence to adulthood (spanning ages 13 to 33; 439 Black, 128 White, and 125 Hispanic males). Among these males who became fathers, we consider cannabis use during fatherhood (Life Stage 2 —spanning the period of time when their firstborn child was between the ages of 7 and 17—217 Black, 55 White, and 56 Hispanic males). Ordinal generalized estimating equations were specified to examine cannabis use trajectories during both stages of the males’ lives. Results: No significant differences in cannabis use as a function of racial/ethnic group were found during the transition from adolescence to adulthood (Life Stage 1). All groups had a peak of cannabis use in the early to mid-20’s followed by a decline in use. During fatherhood (Life Stage 2), cannabis use was stable for all groups, but Black fathers reported more frequent cannabis use on average than Hispanic fathers. Conclusions: The increase in cannabis use well past adolescence for all groups suggests the potential importance of intervention initiatives during the transition to adulthood. The more frequent use of cannabis by Black fathers warrants further study given the impact parental cannabis use can have on offspring.

Home as the Quintessential Anti-Racist School: Reflections on Black Logics of Place and Opportunity, Parenting and Learning, Being and Striving

In this article, we share our process of reflecting together and our resulting thoughts on the idea of anti-racist schooling amid our current experiences as Black men and fathers, as educators and researchers, as faculty colleagues, and as friends. In our respective careers, we have each continually posed questions that critically examine a range of epistemic and empirical phenomena at the intersection of racialization and racism, injustice, socialization and identity, and the institutionalization of mathematical knowing, learning, and teaching. We hope to bring some of that prior work to bear on our reflections here—and in ways that, before now, we have never written.

Exploring Parental Identities: How Single Black Males Understand Fatherhood in the Absence of Their Fathers

This qualitative study was exploratory in nature and involved the collection and analysis of data from Single Black fathers in Northern California raised without a father in the home. Fathers in our study shared that they navigate their roles as single fathers through trial and error and by making a personal commitment to do what is necessary for the well-being of their children; they refuse to allow obstacle to get in their way of their effort to be a responsible, caring father. The absence of their fathers was a prevalent factor that increased the devotion they have for their children.

Stereotype awareness and Black fathers’ paternal engagement: At the nexus of racial and fathering identities.

Stereotype awareness and Black fathers’ paternal engagement: At the nexus of racial and fathering identities.

Color him father: Generative parenting among low-income, urban-residing, coresidential Black fathers.

Color him father: Generative parenting among low-income, urban-residing, coresidential Black fathers.

Resilience resources in low-income Black, Latino, and White fathers

Background and aimResilience resources are associated with positive mental and physical health outcomes. However, we know little about protective factors in low-income or racially or ethnically diverse populations of men. This study examined socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic differences in resilience resources among low-income Black, Latino, and White fathers of infants. MethodsThe Community Child Health Network conducted a cohort study of mothers and fathers in five sites across the U.S. A sample of fathers who identified as Black, Latino/Hispanic, or non-Hispanic White were recruited and interviewed at home on three occasions during the first year of parenting (n = 597). Several resilience resources were assessed: mastery, self-esteem, dispositional optimism, approach-oriented coping style, positive affect, social support, and spirituality. The first five resources were interrelated and scored as a composite. ResultsMultivariate analyses adjusted for covariates indicated that Black fathers had higher scores on the resilience resources composite compared to White and Latino fathers. Black fathers were also highest in spirituality, followed by Latino fathers who were higher than White fathers. There were significant interactions between race/ethnicity with income and education in predicting optimism, spirituality, and self-esteem. Higher education was associated with higher scores on the resilience resources composite and spirituality in Black fathers, and higher education was associated with higher self-esteem in Black and Latino fathers. Higher income was associated with higher optimism in White fathers. ConclusionThese results indicate that levels of individual resilience factors are patterned by income, education, and race/ethnicity in low-income fathers, with many possible implications for research and policy.

Protective Factors to Promote Health and Flourishing in Black Youth Exposed to Parental Incarceration.

Mass incarceration of Black fathers and mothers in the United States has had an undeniably negative effect on the health and well-being of their children, families, and communities. Nearly 1 in every 9 Black youth in the United States has had an incarcerated parent compared to 1 in every 17 White youth. To mitigate the consequences of such historical and structural racism, family and community protective factors that promote health and flourishing in Black youth need exploration. The aim of this study was to understand the associations of protective family, school, and neighborhood factors of overall health and flourishing in Black youth ever exposed to parental incarceration. Using the 2016-2019 National Survey of Children's Health, secondary data analyses were conducted of Black youth ages 6-17 years exposed to parental incarceration (n = 839). Multivariable logistic regression models predicted the associations among protective family and community factors and two child outcomes of interest: overall good health status and flourishing. Overall good health status was measured dichotomously comparing children in "good, very good, or excellent" health to children in "fair or poor" health. Flourishing was measured as a count score using three survey questions designed to assess the child's curiosity and discovery about learning, resilience, and self-regulation. Protective factors of interest included family resilience and connectedness, neighborhood support and safety, and school safety. Other child and caregiver demographics and health characteristics were also included as covariates. Across all models, higher levels of family connectedness were associated with greater odds of having overall good health and flourishing in Black youth exposed to parental incarceration after adjusting for covariates and neighborhood and school protective characteristics. No significant associations were found between neighborhood or school protective factors and either outcome. To achieve health equity and maximize opportunities for all youth, we must remove the obstacles and consequences of mass incarceration. Improving the health and flourishing of Black youth who have had incarcerated parents requires greater investment in structural supports to bolster family connectedness and better evidence on how to support families affected by mass incarceration and structural racism.

“I’d Rather Be with Them Than Doing Anything Else”: Kobe Bryant’s Status as the MVP of Girl’s Dads

Over 40 years ago, Cazenave (1979) provided one of the first scholarly examinations of how middle-income Black fathers defined the provider role. Since that time, scholars have studied the realities of biological and social fathers (Coles et al., 2010; Connor & White, 2006; Hamer, 2001, 1997; McDougal III & George III, 2016; Ransaw, 2017), as well as the relationship between fathering and sport (Fletcher, 2020). This qualitative work examined the words the late Kobe Bryant (January 23, 1978–January 26, 2020) used to describe his role as father to four daughters. To determine the underlying messages behind Bryant’s words, I used Phenomenology as the theoretical framework. Qualitative analysis of the words featured in the Insider article, “Kobe Bryant’s 10 Most Touching Quotes on Fatherhood and Raising Daughters” By Emily Cavanaugh (February 25, 2020) revealed three themes: (1) Bryant made being a present father a priority; (2) Bryant publicly praised his late daughter Gianna and her sisters; and (3) Bryant saw himself as a role model to children. Most important, Bryant’s fame and status in professional basketball along with his narratives regarding being a father to daughters is a strong, enduring counter narrative to the “absent Black father” trope that is common in society. The work also discussed the reasons why in light of the rape scandal Kobe Bryant is a good role model. Implications for how fatherhood will shape the Bryant legacy will be discussed.

The Racial Configuration of Parent Couples and Premature Birth: an Analysis of the Utah Population Database.

In this paper, we analyze detailed maternal and paternal race information in a 25-year time series of birth record data to consider racial inequities in premature births experienced by women of color and women within interracial parent couples. We analyze birth outcomes within Utah, a historically racially homogeneous state experiencing growing racial diversity and interracial marriage over the past two decades. Our analyses consider disparities in preterm birth according to maternal race and the interracial status of couples for all birth certificate records within the Utah Population Database from 1989 to 2015 (N = 1,148,818). Our results, consistent with a dyadic perspective on minority stress, indicate that maternal race and interracial parent-couple status are each significantly associated with heightened risk of premature birth. The odds of preterm birth are significantly greater among all four racialized groups in the analyses (African Americans, Asians, Native Americans, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islanders) as compared to White women. Furthermore, we find that mothers in mixed-race parent couples with either a white or a black father experience a greater risk of preterm birth than mothers parenting with a father of the same race. Our results suggest that in order to capture the complete perspective on racial-ethnic disparities in adverse birth outcomes, outcomes pivotal for subsequent health outcomes over the life course, it is critical to address racism's toxic effects across multiple levels of lived experience-from the individual level, to the parent dyad, to the local community and beyond.