Black Athletes Research Articles

Left Ventricular Trabeculation: Arrhythmogenic and Clinical Significance in Elite Athletes

Left ventricular (LV) trabeculations (LVTs) are common findings in athletes. Limited information exists regarding clinical significance, management, and outcome. The purpose of this study is to examine the prevalence and morphologic characteristics of LVTs in elite athletes, with a focus on clinical correlates and prognostic significance. We enrolled 1,492 Olympic elite athletes of different sports disciplines with electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and exercise stress test. Individuals with a definite diagnosis of LV noncompaction (LVNC) were excluded; we focused on athletes with LVTs not meeting the criteria for LVNC. Four hundred thirty-five (29.1%) athletes presented with LVTs, which were more frequent in male athletes (62.1% vs 53.5%, P=.002) and Black athletes compared with Caucasian (7.1% vs 2.4%, P<.0001) and endurance athletes (P=.0005). No differences were found with relation to either the site or extent of trabeculations. Endurance athletes showed a higher proportion of LVTs and larger LV volumes (end-diastolic and end-systolic, respectively, 91.5±19.8mL vs 79.3±29.9mL, P=.002; and 33.1±10mL vs 28.6±11.7mL, P=.007) and diastolic pattern with higher E wave (P=.01) and e' septal velocities (P=.02). Ventricular arrhythmias were found in 14% of LVTs versus 11.6% of athletes without LVTs (P=.22). Neither the location nor the LVTs' extension were correlated to ventricular arrhythmias. At 52±32months of follow-up, no differences in arrhythmic burden were observed (11.1% in LVT athletes vs 10.2%, P=.51). Left ventricular trabeculations are quite common in athletes, mostly male, Black, and endurance, likely as the expression of adaptive remodeling. In the absence of associated clinical abnormalities, such as LV systolic and diastolic impairment, electrocardiogram repolarization abnormalities, or family evidence of cardiomyopathy, athletes with LVTs have benign clinical significance and should not require further investigation.

Prevalence, Performance and Predictors of Electrocardiographic Left Ventricular Hypertrophy in Male Black Athletes: A Retrospective Study

Introduction QRS voltages for electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy (ECG-LVH) are more prominent in Black athletes than non-Black athletes. The underlying physiological relationships of ECG-LVH in BA remain enigmatic despite their greater predisposition to arterial hypertension. Objectives To determine the frequency of eight eponymous ECG-LVH criteria in male collegiate athletes in Nigeria; To determine the diagnostic performance of the most prevalent criteria; To determine the predictors of ECG-LVH. Methods 34 (thirty-four) athletes and 49 (forty-nine) non-athletic controls with normal electrocardiograms and echocardiograms were retrospectively recruited from an existing pre-participation screening cohort. They were all normotensive, non-obese and normoglycemic, and matched for age and body mass index (BMI). Results The four most frequent criteria were Sokolow-Lyon index (67.6% vs. 36.7%; χ2 = 7.7; p = .006), Romhilt’s criterion (52.9% vs. 8.2%; χ2 = 20.6; p &lt; .001), Peguero-Lo Presti criterion (38.2% vs. 22.4%; χ2 = 2.43; p &lt; .144), and Mazzoleni’s criterion (35.3% vs. 4.1%; χ2 = 13.95; p &lt; .001). The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of these criteria ranged between 23.8%–57.1%, 38.5%–53.9%, and 32.4%–50.0%, respectively. Athletic activity (OR = 4.49; 95% confidence interval, CI = 1.63–12.36; p = .004) and lower BMI (OR = 0.78; 95% CI = 0.63–0.97; p = .026) were independent predictors of ECG-LVH by the Sokolow-Lyon criterion. Conclusions Voltage ECG-LVH criteria all poorly predict the presence of echocardiographic LVH in young male Black athletes. However, the Sokolow-Lyon criterion seems to be associated with a benign cardio-metabolic profile in such athletes and appears hypothetically superior to other voltage criteria for identifying physiological cardiac remodeling in them. This hypothesis should be tested in future studies.

Recovery Is Similar Between Black and White College Athletes Following Sport-Related Concussion.

Racial identity may associate with clinical outcomes following sport-related concussion (SRC). This study compared clinical outcome scores before and after recovery from a SRC between Black or White college athletes. Prospective cohort. Participants were self-reported White (n = 61, 18.5 [1.1]y of age) and Black (n = 24, 18.3 [1.1]y of age) NCAA Division 1 college athletes. The revised Head Injury Scale (HIS-r), the Immediate Postconcussion and Cognitive Test (ImPACT) battery, and the Sensory Organization Test (SOT) at baseline (T1), upon symptom resolution (T2) following a diagnosed SRC, and upon establishing a new baseline assessment (T3). Race was collected from paper and electronic medical records. The revised Head Injury Scale total symptom severity, ImPACT's Verbal Memory, Visual Memory, Visual Motor Speed (VMS), and Reaction Time, and the SOT Equilibrium Score, were compared between groups at each time point. Multivariate analyses of variance (2 [group] × 3 [time]) were used to compare revised Head Injury Scale, ImPACT, and SOT outcome scores. Post hoc analyses consisted of independent and paired sample t tests. A significant main effect for time (λ = 0.66, F2,82 = 21.55, P < .001, ηp2=.34) was observed for the SOT. White athletes significantly improved on the Equilibrium Score between all time points (all P < .006). Similarly, Black athletes significantly improved on the Equilibrium Score between T1-T2 and T1-T3 (all P < .001). A significant main effect of time was observed for ImPACT's Verbal Memory, Visual Memory, and VMS outcome scores (all P < .001). VMS improved for White athletes between T1-T2 (P = .02) and T3 (P = .006). Black athletes had improved VMS scores between T1-T3 (P = .015) and T2-T3 (P = .005). A between-group difference was observed for VMS at T2 (P = .004). There was 1 small and not clinically significant difference between groups for the VMS score at T2. Overall, groups performed consistently or improved upon their baseline balance, cognition, and symptom outcome scores at clinically relevant time points following a SRC.

Building the Beach: Interest Convergence, (Black) Capitalism, and Air Jordans

This paper uses water waves as a metaphor to critically examine Black athlete activism and Derrick Bell’s interest-convergence principle as an analytical lens for understanding how Black Athletes leveraged the capitalist system of sport to build power through wealth. Specifically, we focus on how the convergence of interest between Michael Jordan, Nike, and the National Basketball Association “built the beach” on which the current wave of Black athlete activists stand. While Jordan has been noted for his lack of activism related to race-related issues in the United States, Jordan’s ability to accumulate billions of dollars in generational wealth through interest-convergence, he did lay the foundation for current Black athlete activists including Steph Curry and Lebron James. As such, Black athlete activists like James and Curry have the ability to speak up and speak out when they deem it is necessary without the fear of financial ruin or loss of livelihood.

Anti-Black Misandry as an Emotional Reflection With Black American Male College Athletes: An Interpretative Phenomenological Study

Black American males, specifically Black male athletes, experience a form of twoness that uniquely recognizes their talents but also a societal fear. This work addresses Black American males’ multidimensionality and emotional and psychological expressions when dealing with societal racism. This work explores Anti-Black misandry through an interpretive phenomenological lens. Five Black American men who are former college athletes reflect and emotionally express their experiences being a Black man and an athlete throughout their entire athletic continuum and post their athletic tenure. Results suggest that Black males are willing to express their vulnerabilities emotionally in safe spaces while recognizing racialized gender norms about emotional expressions. Implications of this study suggest that Black American male college athletes, when given constructive support, have meaningful ideas and resolutions about how society can honestly acknowledge their humanity and not just gaze at their existence as entertaining objects.

A Perfect Storm: Black Feminism and Women’s National Basketball Association Black Athlete Activism

This article pays homage to Black Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) players and their activist efforts. Such players are often-overlooked activists who are always “holdin it down” while simultaneously keeping activism at the forefront of their agenda. When the 2020 Women’s National Basketball Association season opened, the athletes in this league took the opportunity to highlight social injustice in the United States; not surprising given the history of Black feminism and athlete activism in this league. Using underwater waves as a metaphor, we examine how the intersectionality of Black feminism and Black athlete activism has largely gone unnoticed. Feminism and women’s rights movements have largely been associated with White women while Black activism has been associated with Black men. This manuscript aims to highlight the efforts of Black women and nonbinary athletes whose work has been instrumental in societal progression.

All the Right Questions: Exploring Racial Stereotypes in Sports Press Conferences

Sports press conferences are an area in need of more study and critique, especially regarding how sports journalists ask questions to athletes. This study analyzes the press conferences (N = 44) for four major college football teams during the 2021–2022 season, using textual analysis to explore whether sports journalists’ questions differ based on the race of the athlete and whether those questions reflect racial stereotypes. This study relies on theories of race and representation, including racial formation theory and color-blind racism, and builds upon research on stereotypes in sports. The author found that questions asked to White and Black athletes often reflected stereotypical binaries that emphasized White athletes’ intelligence, leadership, and humanity while highlighting Black athletes’ athleticism, strength, and physical ability.

The Influence of Race on Time to Symptom Resolution Following Sport Concussion in Collegiate Athletes

Context: Race has been shown to influence computerized neurocognitive test scores, motor function test scores, and reported symptomology following sport-related concussion (SRC). However, the effect race may have on recovery time following SRC remains unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of race on days until symptom free from SRC in NCAA Division 1 collegiate athletes. Design: Prospective cohort study. Methods: Participants were Black (n = 53 [28% female]) and White (n = 150 [43.3% female]) who were on average 19.0 (1.21) and 20.2 (1.3) years of age, respectively. Data were collected from the 2015–2016 to 2020–2021 collegiate sport seasons. Participants were evaluated before and after an SRC at empirically derived time points. The primary outcome measure was time until symptom free (days). Additional outcomes included baseline and postinjury Immediate Postconcussion Assessment and Cognitive Test and Sensory Organization Test (SOT) scores. A Mann–Whitney U test compared days to symptom free between groups. Immediate Postconcussion Assessment and Cognitive Test and SOT outcome scores were analyzed using a 2 (group) × 2 (time) analysis of variance. Results: White participants had a longer median recovery time (9 d) to symptom free compared with Black participants (6 d [P = .04]). Statistically significant differences were observed between Black 87.3 (9.84) and White 90.4 (8.30) groups for Immediate Postconcussion Assessment and Cognitive Test’s verbal memory composite score (P = .03). Postinjury, White participants scored significantly higher 44.5 (5.63) on visual motor speed compared with Black participants (42.4 (5.90) [P = .02]). Within-group SOT differences between baseline and postinjury testing were observed in both groups (all P &lt; .001). Conclusions: Black collegiate athletes achieved symptom resolution sooner than White athletes. We did not explore underlying sociocultural factors such as socioeconomic status or previous concussion education, which may have influenced our results. Future studies should explore factors that may contextualize these findings.

Perceptions and Perspectives of Black Male Athletic Directors at National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Institutions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship among self- identified Black male National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) athletic directors (ADs) and their lived experiences of career attainment through the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT). This research examined both the factors impacting the ADs’ careers and the strategies they used to overcome barriers. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with - at the time of the study - all of the FBS Black male ADs (N=12) regarding their perspectives of their lived AD experiences. The findings revealed three overarching dimensions (i.e., allyship, nepotism, and networking with other minority leaders) and seven emergent themes associated with success factors (i.e., diverse network, lack of privilege, mentorship, and cultural differences) and barrier removal strategies (i.e., intrinsic motivation, gathering extensive experience, and being intentional about networking). This study advances the sport management field and CRT research by revealing insights regarding Black ADs’ perceptions, challenges, opportunities, and strategies.

The Switch Up: BlackCrit, The Heritage, and the Wave of Athletic Racial Capitalism

In this article, the authors examine the period of time between Edwards’ third and fourth waves of athlete activism, featuring a lapse in The Heritage of Black athlete activism efforts. By applying a Black Critical Theory lens and analyzing athletes like Michael Jordan in the apolitical era of Black athletes, this study provides contextual understandings in addressing the gap in Black athlete activism and advancement from the 1980s to the late 2000s. The BlackCrit lens allows for the exposure of the problematic nature of racial capitalism, and how it caused athletes to go against The Heritage of Black athlete activism.

Impact of Ethnicity Match on Athlete Endorsement

Although direct linkages between sponsor brands and sports viewers were widely investigated in the context of athlete endorsement, few studies examined the effect of parasocial identification (PSI) on how sports viewers would perceive brands endorsed by athletes of color. A two (Black vs Asian athletes) by two (Black vs Asian viewers) mixed factorial experiment was designed to examine the role of viewers’ PSI with athletes of color in interaction effects between viewers’ ethnicities and athletes’ ethnicities on their perceptions of athlete-endorsed brands. Results found that athletes’ ethnicities generated a main effect on viewers’ perceptions of athlete-endorsed brands. Although viewers’ ethnicities did not yield any significant impact, an interaction between viewers’ ethnicities and athletes’ ethnicities affected viewers’ perceptions of athlete-endorsed brands. Moreover, viewers’ PSI with athletes intervened this interaction effect on their perceptions of athlete-endorsed brands. The practical application of ethnic similarities was also discussed in response to athlete endorsement.

Marion Jackson’s Conflicted Sacrifice: The Atlanta Daily World’s Black Southern Sportswriter on the Tension between Integration and HBCU Sport

From 1947 to 1973, a Black Southern sportswriter named Marion Jackson grappled with the role of all-Black sporting organizations during the age of desegregation. As sports editor for the Atlanta Daily World, the United States’ largest Black daily newspaper, Jackson covered various parallel institutions that provided sporting opportunities for Black athletes, such as football at Historically Black Colleges and Universities and the Negro Baseball Leagues. Although Jackson initially ignored the potential for desegregation to undermine these institutions, by the 1960s he consistently argued that the benefits of integration would outweigh the loss of all-Black sport. Yet despite this decades-long struggle, Jackson and other Southern Black sportswriters remain understudied. Scholarship on the Black press has largely ignored this Southern contingent by focusing instead on the desegregation of major league baseball teams in the Northeast. Although these Northern sportswriters grappled with similar tensions as they debated the decline of the Negro Leagues, Southern journalists lived and wrote in the heart of Jim Crow segregation. For decades they covered all-Black sporting institutions and mourned their loss after desegregation. Marion Jackson, and his willingness to sacrifice all-Black sport for integration, provides a valuable starting point for the study of these significant journalists.

Sudden Cardiac Death in National Collegiate Athletic Association Athletes: A 20-Year Study.

Understanding the incidence, causes, and trends of sudden cardiac death (SCD) among young competitive athletes is critical to inform preventive policies. This study included National Collegiate Athletic Association athlete deaths during a 20-year time frame (July 1, 2002, through June 30, 2022). Athlete deaths were identified through 4 separate independent databases and search strategies (National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list, Parent Heart Watch database and media reports, National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database, and insurance claims). Autopsy reports and medical history were reviewed by an expert panel to adjudicate causes of SCD. A total of 143 SCD cases in National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes were identified from 1102 total deaths. The National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list identified 117 of 143 (82%), the Parent Heart Watch database or media reports identified 89 of 143 (62%), the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database identified 63 of 143 (44%), and insurance claims identified 27 of 143 (19%) SCD cases. The overall incidence of SCD was 1:63 682 athlete-years (95% CI, 1:54 065-1:75 010). Incidence was higher in male athletes than in female athletes (1:43 348 [95% CI, 1:36 228-1:51 867] versus 1:164 504 [95% CI, 1:110 552-1:244 787] athlete-years, respectively) and Black athletes compared with White athletes (1:26 704 [1:20 417-1:34 925] versus 1:74 581 [1:60 247-1:92 326] athlete-years, respectively). The highest incidence of SCD was among Division I male basketball players (1:8188 [White, 1:5848; Black, 1:7696 athlete-years]). The incidence rate for SCD decreased over the study period (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.71 [95% CI, 0.61-0.82]), whereas the rate of noncardiovascular deaths remained stable (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.94-1.04]). Autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (19.5%) was the most common postmortem examination finding, followed by idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy or possible cardiomyopathy (16.9%) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (12.7%), in cases with enough information for adjudication (118 of 143). Eight cases of death were attributable to myocarditis over the study period (1 case from January 1, 2020, through June 30, 2022), with none attributed to COVID-19 infection. SCD events were exertional in 50% of cases. Exertional SCD was more common among those with coronary artery anomalies (100%) and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (83%). The incidence of SCD in college athletes has decreased. Male sex, Black race, and basketball are associated with a higher incidence of SCD.

Abstract 14706: Outcomes of Sports Participation for Black Athletes With Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators: Data From the ICD Sports Registry

Introduction: The ICD Sports Registry demonstrated that many athletes with ICDs can participate in competitive sports without death, failure to defibrillate, or physical injury. However, sudden cardiac arrest is more prevalent and has worse outcomes in Black compared to White individuals in the general population and among athletes. Outcomes of sports participation for Black athletes with ICDs have not been described. Aim: To describe the risk of arrhythmia and efficacy of ICDs in Black athletes. Methods: This is a post-hoc subgroup analysis of the ICD Sports Registry, which enrolled athletes with ICDs age 10 to 60, participating in organized, competitive sports, and followed them prospectively for four years. The endpoints and methods are reported previously. Results: Among the 440 athletes, 15 were Black and 410 white. Among the Black athletes, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was the most common diagnosis (40%) and 87% were implanted for secondary prevention or syncope (vs 69% in White athletes). Most common sports were basketball (8), softball (4), and running (3), with 7 Black athletes competing on varsity/junior varsity/traveling teams. Among the Black athletes, there were no appropriate shocks during sports, among white athletes, 7% received an appropriate shock during sports. Among Black athletes, there was one appropriate shock event for ventricular tachycardia (7%), a VT storm in an athlete with idiopathic VF, non-sports-related. Among white athletes, 10% received appropriate shocks during non-sports activities. Two Black athletes (13%) received an inappropriate shock, one competition-related (sinus tachycardia) and the other for T wave oversensing at rest, vs 12% of white athletes. There were no sports-related deaths, arrests, or arrhythmia-related injuries in either group. Conclusions: Black athletes represented a small subset of the ICD Sports Registry. Reasons for this are unknown, but may include disparities in ICD implantation and/or in research recruitment/ participation. These Black athletes experienced both appropriate and inappropriate shocks as did white athletes. These data do not suggest a signal for harm for competitive sports participation for Black athletes with ICDs but larger studies are needed.

Body Satisfaction and Disordered Eating Among Black Women Student Athletes: An Examination of Resilience, Self-Compassion, and Social Support

Low levels of body satisfaction have been consistently linked to disordered eating behaviors among women. However, few researchers have explored the mechanisms explaining this relationship among subgroups of women, who because of their social positioning (e.g., gender, race, and athlete status) may differ in the etiology of disordered eating. Accordingly, we surveyed 354 Black women student athletes (ages 18–24) to assess psychosocial health factors (resiliency, self-compassion, and social support) contributing to body satisfaction and disordered eating among this group. First, through a frequency analysis we determined approximately 50–60% of Black women student athletes reported being satisfied with their bodies, particularly with the muscularity and overall size and shape of their bodies. Second, a structural equation model supported the hypothesis that higher levels of self-compassion and social support contributed to greater body satisfaction, which, in turn, predicted athletes reporting fewer disordered eating behaviors. Our results suggest that body satisfaction is multidimensional, and there are specific psychosocial health factors that may bolster body satisfaction and protect against disordered eating among Black women student athletes.

The Black Athlete as Hero: American Barrier Breakers From Nine Sports

The Black Athlete as Hero: American Barrier Breakers From Nine Sports

Short intermittent taekwondo test to assess athlete's physiological and metabolic profile.

The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a new Short Intermittent Taekwondo Test (SITT) in 17 black belt athletes. Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O<inf>2max</inf>), carbon dioxide production (V̇CO<inf>2</inf>), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), heart rate (HR), and blood lactate concentration [La]+ during treadmill cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and SITT were compared. SITT started with 10 sec of all-out kicks, alternating legs, and progressively increasing 5 s on each stage until the 4th stage. After the 4th stage the participants performed 25 s of turning kicks (Dolleo chagi), on each stage until the last (10th stage). The passive recovery phase after the 4th and the 7th stage lasted 30 s. V̇O<inf>2max</inf> and maximal HR<inf>max</inf> were not significantly different (P=0.85 vs. P=0.76) between tests, while RER and [La]+ were significantly higher in SITT than in CPET (P=0.002 vs. P=0.001). No difference in RPE (P=0.84) was found. A significant positive correlation between two tests for V̇O<inf>2max</inf> and HR<inf>max</inf> was found. Our findings showed that SITT induces physiological responses like CPET suggesting that it can be used to assess aerobic power in national taekwondo athletes, thus helping coaches to select correctly training intensities and monitor athletes' aerobic performance along the training phases.

“All the Makings of an Eventual NFL Starter:” Racial/Ethnic Disparities in a Decade of National Football League Draft Profiles as Revealed by Natural Language Processing

Student-athletes are often treated differently and inequitably based on their race/ethnicity. For example, Black student-athletes often face unjust stereotyping and discrimination because they are seen for their athletic achievements over their academic achievements compared to White student-athletes. Using in-game broadcast data, Black athletes are also discussed differently than White athletes, with disparities in how broadcasters focus on players’ physical and cognitive abilities. The current paper draws on and extends this literature by using natural language processing techniques to identify how experts communicate about different National Football League (NFL) prospects. A decade of data (2014-2023), including nearly 4,000 draft profiles, suggested writers attending to Black draftees used fewer positive emotions in player narratives than writers attending to White draftees. Narratives of White players also mentioned the NFL more than narratives of Black players, revealing a possible disparity in perceived belonging to the league. Implications for theory and equity in sport are discussed.

“It's All About the U”

Abstract Long before Colin Kaepernick kneeled and after Tommie Smith and John Carlos raised their fists, University of Miami football players revolted against the white establishment and brought national attention to Black Miami. This analysis considers how “the U,” the first predominantly Black program outside of HBCUs challenged blue-blood programs in both a demographic sense and through a style of play antithetical to the political and cultural aims of the Reagan narrative. It broadens traditional understandings of the revolt of the Black athlete beyond the 1960s and 1970s and argues that, historically, Miami boosterism erased Black contributions to the city that the 1980s Black football players’ hypervisibility and hip-hop aesthetic confronted and exposed.

“No wrong way to be a woman”: media coverage of Serena Williams as a mother

ABSTRACT This study interrogates media representations of tennis player Serena Williams during the five-month period between her first official match and her first Grand Slam tournament after giving birth. Grounded in literature on coverage of Black athletes, athlete mothers, and Black mothers, a qualitative critical discourse analysis of news articles (n = 61) between December 17 and June 2018 shows that Williams received mostly positive media coverage upon her return to the professional tour. In contrast to previous representations of Williams as “Other” in tennis on account of her position as a Black woman, journalists afforded Williams some of the framing benefits usually exclusive to white athletes and mothers. This study advances academic literature on the intersections of race and gender in sport and (Black) athlete motherhood by demonstrating how motherhood has altered representations of Serena Williams’s race and gender in media coverage, subverting traditional representations of her Black female body but emphasizing hegemonic ideals of (white) motherhood.