Birds Directive Research Articles

Waterbird communities adjust to climate warming according to conservation policy and species protection status

Climate change is one of the strongest biodiversity threats. Worse still, the impact of multiple anthropic stressors on species dynamics could complicate adaptation to temperature increase. International conservation policies aim to protect ecosystems against anthropic pressures, but their ability to facilitate adaptation to climate change has yet to be assessed. Using wetland bird monitoring surveys, we evaluated the differences at the country scale of community adjustment to temperature increase of wintering waterbird communities (145 species) according to the implementation of the two main western Palearctic international conservation policies (Bern Convention and Birds Directive) in the Mediterranean basin (2786 sites, 22 countries) over a 22-year period. We showed that thermic community composition increases over time in countries which have enforced conservation policies. We found that strictly protected species under the Birds Directive and the Bern Convention contributed more to this community adjustment than the not strictly protected species. The mechanism results from a population increase in protected warm-dwelling species but not from a decline in cold-dwelling species. This study supports the ability of international conservation policies to mitigate the effect of climate change on animal communities.

Northern range shift may be due to increased competition induced by protection of species rather than to climate change alone.

Few long‐term, large‐scale studies have been conducted about the factors likely to explain changes in species abundance and distribution in winter. Range shifts are generally attributed to the climate change or land use. This study shows that other factors such as species protection and the ensuing increasing numbers of individuals and competition could be involved. It details the progressive conquest of France, the most important European wintering area for great cormorant, in three decades as its legal protection by the EU Birds Directive. It is based on 13 exhaustive national counts. Cormorants first occupied the farthest areas (Atlantic and Mediterranean lagoons, then larger rivers) from the main‐core European breeding area, with only progressive occupancy of the northeastern part later. This strategy mainly resulted from competition for optimal available feeding areas. Suboptimal areas (smaller wetlands harboring smaller night roosts, colder northeastern French areas) and progressive fragmentation of large night roosts into smaller, better located ones minimized flight costs. The coldest areas were occupied last, once other areas were saturated. Their occupancy was favored locally by the global climate change, but it played a minor role in these strategies. Both factors induced only a small NNE shift of the weighted centroid range of the wintering population (2.6 km/year) which mainly resulted from competition (buffer effect). Only the 2009 cold wave decreased the total number of wintering cormorants at the national scale, once the population had probably reached the carrying capacity of the country, while the previous cold waves had a minor effect. Comparatively, there was a greater SSE range shift of the weighted centroid of the breeding population (4.66 km/year). Range shifts of other recently protected species have been attributed to the sole climate change in the literature, but competition due to the saturation of usual wintering or breeding areas should be considered too.

Biogeochemical dynamics and bioaccumulation processes in Manila clam: Implications for biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Ria de Aveiro Lagoon

The present work was carried out in the Ria de Aveiro Lagoon (Portugal) to better understand the dynamics driving the bioaccumulation processes in edible bivalves, namely in the Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum. For the first time, a holistic approach was applied, collecting data on sediment physico-chemical characteristics and its contamination, geochemical speciation and metal(loid) bioaccumulation in clams, from three exploited areas of the lagoon (Costa Nova, Torreira, Ílhavo). The Ria de Aveiro Lagoon is part of the Natura 2000 network, has the designation of Special Protection Area (SPA), contains Sites of Community Importance (SCI), it is protected by the EU Birds Directive (79/109/CEE) and includes a natural reserve in its northern part. Specifically concerning the metal(loid) occurrence, the monitoring and the identification of contaminated sites in protected areas are priorities, to improve the biodiversity conservation efforts and to ensure the correct management of natural resources.Results showed that multiple driving forces interacted together to determine site-specific impacts, resulting in different risks at local scale for the transferring of the metal(loid)s to the trophic chain. Hydrodynamics played a major role driving the occurrence of depositional or ablative sites, influencing the granulometric composition of sediments and their contamination; metal(loid) chemical forms were then determinated by multiple factors like pH, redox potential and organic matter content. The geochemical speciation data showed that the Ílhavo area should be considered the most dangerous in terms of clam consumption, since in case of environmental changes, possible conversion of the elements from the potentially bioavailable forms to the bioavailable ones can occur. Moreover, bioaccumulation processes in Manila clam were observed for Cd, Zn and especially As, the latter representing serious risk for consumer safety throughout clam consumption.

Large-scale Water-related Innovative Renewable Energy Projects and the Habitats and Birds Directives: Legal Issues and Solutions

This article discusses two legal issues that relate to the conflict between the interest of protecting habitats and species under the Habitats and Birds Directives, versus the interest of promoting the use of innovative water-related renewable energy, with regard to the quota in the Renewable Energy Directive. These legal issues are: first, the possible conflict between the protection rules of the Habitats and Birds Directive on the one hand and the Renewable Energy Directive on the other hand, and second, the lack of integration between the Renewable Energy Directive and the derogation clauses of the Habitats and Birds Directives. Tidal stream energy is used as a case study to show the practical relevance of the legal issues for the large-scale deployment of innovative water-related renewable energy techniques. The final sections discuss solutions to the legal issues. These are first, the application of adaptive management in combination with mitigation or phased deployment, in order to deal with uncertainty, and second, the introduction of detailed renewable energy plans per Member State in order to increase integration between the Habitats and Birds Directives and the Renewable Energy Directive. The final sections also discuss the applicability of the findings of this article to other innovative water-related renewable energy sources such as wave energy and salinity gradient energy (blue energy).

EU protected area network did not prevent a country wide population decline in a threatened grassland bird.

BackgroundFew studies have assessed the effectiveness of the Protected Area networks on the conservation status of target species. Here, we assess the effectiveness of the Portuguese Natura 2000 (the European Union network of protected areas) in maintaining a species included in the Annex I of the Bird Directive, namely the population of a priority farmland bird, the little bustard Tetrax tetrax.MethodsWe measured the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 by comparing population trends across time (2003–2006 and 2016) in 51 areas, 21 of which within 12 Special Protection Areas (SPA) that were mostly designated for farmland bird conservation and another 30 areas without EU protection.ResultsOverall, the national population is estimated to have declined 49% over the last 10–14 years. This loss was found to be proportionally larger outside SPA (64% decline) compared to losses within SPA (25% decline). However, the absolute male density decline was significantly larger within SPA .DiscussionIn spite of holding higher population densities and having prevented habitat loss, we conclude that Natura 2000 was not effective in buffering against the overall bustard population decline. Results show that the mere designation of SPA in farmland is not enough to secure species populations and has to be combined with agricultural policies and investment to maintain not only habitat availability but also habitat quality.

Evaluation of national parks on the basis of Nature 2000 areas

Abstract The goal of this work is to present the valorisation of national park based on the criteria resulting from standard data forms (SDF). The analysis covered a number of areas protected under the Birds Directive and Habitats Directive with the A, B or C category. Habitats and species marked as D in the SDF are not protected in the Nature 2000 areas, which is why they were not taken into account in the analysis. The presented characteristics made it possible to determine the hierarchy of national parks amongst the most valuable natural objects that deserve protection in the first place and also to verify the views on most valuable areas.

Anthropization Processes and Protection of the Environment: An Assessment of Land Cover Changes in Sardinia, Italy

Protection of the environment is implemented through preventive and mitigating measures aimed at hindering anthropization processes. These measures may possibly entail the establishment of natural protected areas and sites where conservation measures are stated under the provisions of the “Habitats” Directive (No. 92/43/EEC) and Directive No. 2009/147/EC (the so-called “Birds” Directive, which modifies Directive No. 79/409/EEC). A straightforward way of assessing widespread anthropization processes consists in analyzing land cover changes related artificialization processes concerning natural areas. In this study, we assess land cover changes by using the simplified land cover taxonomy of the Land and Ecosystem Account classes and by analyzing transition processes; in addition, we propose a comparative appraisal of land cover changes occurring in areas characterized by different protection regimes, as follows: areas protected under the provisions of national or regional acts or regulations; sites belonging to the Natura 2000 network, that is, protected under the Habitats or Birds Directives; and unprotected areas. We analyze anthropization processes that take place in Sardinia, an Italian insular region characterized by the presence of several national and regional protected areas and by a significant system of Natura 2000 sites, and assess land cover changes over a twelve-year period (2000–2012). The outcomes of our study put in evidence important lessons related to the definition and implementation of planning policies aiming at preventing anthropization processes in Sardinia. Moreover, the assessment methodology we implement in our study can be exported to other European regions to set up planning processes that fit the local features of land cover changes.

Continent-wide test of the efficiency of the European union’s conservation legislation in delivering population benefits for bird species

Birds are among the most important organisms for indicating the state of environmental health and their population changes may be thus informative for assessments of country-level conservation tools. One such tool applied in the European Union (EU) is the Birds Directive which (together with general protection of all bird species) lists a number of species under its Annex I and these species enjoy specific protection conditions. Although some previous studies found indications of the efficiency of the Annex I in delivering benefits for the listed species, the assessments where either confined to the so called old member states (i.e. countries entered EU before 2004) or did not include countries outside EU as a suitable control group. Therefore, it remains unclear whether this tool is efficient also in the new EU-member states (i.e. countries entered EU from 2004 onwards). For this purpose, we used publicly available information source and assembled a dataset providing country-level population trends of 252 European breeding bird species estimated for the time period 2001–2012 in 33 European countries containing old member states, new member states and non-member states. We predicted that if efficient, then listing the species under Annex I would result in significantly positive population trends of the listed species in EU countries irrespective to the time of their enterance, while no such pattern should be observed in non-EU countries. We tested this prediction using linear mixed effect models controlling for the effects of 11 species’ traits reflecting the influence of other factors (e.g. climate change, land cover change, proximity to range edges) on trends and including the species and country indentifiers as random effects. We found that the listing under the Annex I had significantly positive effect on bird trends in both old and new member states, whereas no such effect was observed in the non-member states. Although the positive influence of listing was larger in the old and than in the new member states, the difference was not statistically significant. Our results imply that the Annex I of the Birds Directive is an important tool for bird conservation in Europe and that its positive influence on bird populations is detectable even in the new EU members entering EU relatively recently. As birds are often used as indicators also for other groups of organisms, these results suggest that not only birds may benefit from EU’s conservation legislation but comprehensive assessments are needed.

Control of invasive species for the conservation of biodiversity in Mediterranean islands. The LIFE PonDerat project in the Pontine Archipelago, Italy

We present the EU LIFE PonDerat project, which is aimed at restoring the natural ecosystems of the Pontine Archipelago, a group of islands located off the western coast of Italy. The spread of invasive species is a major environmental threat on these islands, which are rich in rare habitats and endemic species and are important sites for the conservation of Mediterranean biodiversity. The project focuses on the conservation of species and habitats that are protected by EU laws but are currently threatened by introduced plants and animals. The main targets of the control measures are black rats, feral goats, mouflons and invasive plants of the genus Carpobrotus. Conservation measures focus on the shearwaters Puffinus yelkouan and Calonectris diomedea, which are endemic to the Mediterranean and are listed in Annex I of the European Bird Directive. Conservation measures also focus on island habitats of great biogeographical value, which are listed in Annex I of the European Habitats Directive and are seriously threatened by introduced herbivores and by invasive plants. The main outcome expected from this project is that the restoration of ecosystem functions will enhance the breeding success and population size of shearwaters and lead to the recovery of target habitats.

Lesser Kestrel Foraging Habitats in Special Protection Areas in Agro-ecosystems

The European Union (EU) Wild Birds Directive recognises that the most serious threats to wild birds’ conservation in Europe are habitat loss and degradation, and hence, habitats of threatened and migratory species must be protected with the establishment of the network of the special protection areas (SPAs) for migratory and endangered bird species in the EU member states. The major European population of the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni, a migratory falcon listed in Annex I of the Birds Directive, occurs in low-input farming systems in the Mediterranean basin, including Greece. The aim of this study was to identify foraging habitats of lesser kestrels and relate them to the delimited SPAs in the agro-ecosystems of Greece, where the stronghold of the species population for Greece occurs. Foraging habitat preferences were assessed using Poisson regression models (PRMs). SPAs were examined on whether they can effectively protect foraging habitats for breeding lesser kestrels in the study area. Foraging lesser kestrel abundance was positively associated with grasslands and non-irrigated land (dry cereals), and negatively associated with irrigated land (wet cotton), scrubland and woodland. Electricity facilities were used as foraging perches by lesser kestrels. The current SPAs cover a small percentage of the species’ foraging sites and cannot be considered coherent enough to support and protect the foraging habitats of lesser kestrels and other priority species in the agro-ecosystems of the study area. Proposals for effective conservation of low-input farming systems, supporting priority species, are also presented.

Monitoring protected areas from space: A multi-temporalassessment using raptors as biodiversity surrogates.

Monitoring protected areas (PAs) is essential for systematic evaluation of their effectiveness in terms of habitat protection, preservation and representativeness. This study illustrates how the use of species distribution models that combine remote sensing data and information about biodiversity surrogates can contribute to develop a systematic protocol for monitoring PAs. In particular, we assessed the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 (N2000) network, for conserving and preserving the representativeness of seven raptor species in a highly-dynamic landscape in northwest Spain between 2001 and 2014. We also evaluated the cost-effectiveness of the N2000 network by using the total area under protection as a proxy for conservation costs. Overall, the N2000 network was found to poorly represent the habitats of the raptor species. Despite the low representativeness, this network showed a high degree of effectiveness due to increased overall habitat availability for generalist and forest specialist species between 2001 and 2014. Nevertheless, additional protected areas should be established in the near future to increase their representativeness, and thus ensure the protection of open-habitat specialist species and their priority habitats. In addition, proactive conservation measures in natural and semi-natural ecosystems (in particular, montane heathlands) will be essential for long-term protection of Montagu’s harrier (species listed in the Annex I of the Bird Directive), and thus complying with the current European Environmental Legislation. This study sheds light on how the development and application of new protected area indices based on the combined use of freely-available satellite data and species distribution models may contribute substantially to the cost-efficiency of the PA monitoring systems, and to the ‘Fitness Check’ process of EU Nature Directives.

Five major invasive alien tree species in European Union forest habitat types of the Alpine and Continental biogeographical regions

Invasive alien species are a threat to protected areas, species, and habitats worldwide. At the European level, the control of invasive alien species is a major goal of the EU Biodiversity Strategy, and a cornerstone, in this sense, is the Regulation (EU) no.1143/2014 on invasive alien species. In this study, we focus on the Alpine and Continental biogeographical regions of Europe (defined in art. 1 of the Habitats Directive; 92/43/EEC), and aim to give an overview of the main protected forest habitat types threatened by invasive alien species, and focus on five major invasive alien tree species (Acer negundo, Ailanthus altissima, Prunus serotina, Quercus rubra, and Robinia pseudoacacia). We considered the assessment reports under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive for the period 2007–2012, and six documents on the interpretation of habitats, to identify those most threatened by invasive alien species and in particular by the five invasive alien trees. We also assessed selected examples of impacts by these alien tree species on different species groups within Natura 2000 sites to highlight potential effects on biodiversity. Riparian forest habitats and oak dominated woodlands are among the most prone to invasion within the two biogeographical regions. A. altissima and R. pseudoacacia are the most reported invasive alien trees in these protected forest habitat types. Furthermore, examples of the impacts of these tree species have indicated potential detrimental effects on forest habitats structure and functions, and on single species listed in the Habitats and Birds Directives. In conclusion, we emphasise the need for effective management and systematic monitoring of these five invasive alien tree species within Natura 2000 sites.

Synergies of planning for forests and planning for Natura 2000: Evidences and prospects from northern Italy

Improvements in the management of Natura 2000 sites are essential to achieve the targets set out by the Habitats and Birds Directives of the European Union. A current focus is on the development of management plans, which are fundamental instruments in the implementation of conservation measures. This study explores the viability of using existing forest plans to assist in this purpose. As case study, we consider the regulatory framework of the Veneto Region, northern Italy. We collected quantitative and qualitative data on forest plans at the regional and at three sub-regional spatial scales: local, district, and biogeographical. Forest plans cover about 54% of the terrestrial area of Natura 2000 sites in Veneto, and 75% of Sites of Community Importance in the Alpine biogeographical region. At the local scale of analysis, metrics from forest plans represent a valuable historical record which can be used to interpret the current state and future trends, especially for forests with long management records. These data can be used to assess biodiversity indicators for the monitoring of Natura 2000 forest and non-forest habitat types, in compliance with Article 17 of the Habitats Directive. Moreover, the heterogeneous stand conditions which are promoted by some forest management approaches can improve the conservation efforts for some habitat types and species. The scale of local forest plans are typically the most appropriate for implementing habitat management strategies. From this study, we conclude that management authorities should take advantage of the wide spatial coverage and distribution of existing forest plans, especially in mountain areas inside and outside the Natura 2000 network, for the successful conservation of European Union habitat types and species.

How well is the EU protecting its seabirds? Progress in implementing the Birds Directive at sea

The European Commission has repeatedly requested its Member States to fully implement one of the world's oldest nature legislation laws, the Birds Directive, by designating Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in the marine environment. The current work analyses the spatial coverage offered by the SPA network to the 82 species of seabirds that occur in EU waters, and compare it to that of Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), as defined by BirdLife International. Marine SPAs represent 3.9% of the EU's marine area, while the IBA network represents 4.4%. On average, only 0.05% of the EU marine area is protected, and there are enormous regional differences. On average, SPAs and IBAs both cover 16.0% of the breeding distribution range of seabird species, but only1.4% of their non-breeding distribution range. SPAs cover more than 50% of the breeding range of only one seabird family, Procellariidae, and both SPA and IBA networks offer greater coverage to threatened species than to non-threatened ones. The year when Member States were legally obliged (2008 onwards) to declare their marine SPA networks is not significantly related to their network size, and that those species subjected to tracking studies or have well known breeding colonies benefit from higher coverage. Methodological challenges that were once posed to implement the Birds Directive at sea are largely overcome, and political will is the main driver for identifying, designating and managing a complete network of marine SPAs in the EU.

Habitat modelling predictions highlight seasonal relevance of Marine Protected Areas for marine megafauna

According to the European Union Habitats and Birds Directives, EU Member States must extend the Natura 2000 network to marine ecosystems, through the designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). However, the initial status of cetacean and seabird communities across European waters is often poorly understood. It is assumed that an MPA is justified where at least 1% of the “national population” of a species is present during at least part of its biological cycle. The aim of the present work was to use model-based cetacean and seabird distribution to assess the networks of existing Natura 2000 sites and offshore proposed areas of biological interest. The habitat models used here were Generalised Additive Models computed from aerial surveys observational data collected during the winter 2011–2012 and the summer 2012 across the English Channel, Bay of Biscay and north-western Mediterranean Sea. Based on these models, a ratio between species relative abundance predicted within each MPA and the total relative abundance predicted over the French Atlantic or Mediterranean marine regions was computed and compared to the 1% threshold. This assessment was conducted for winter and summer independently, providing information for assessing the relevance of individual MPAs and MPA networks at a seasonal scale. Our results showed that the existing network designed for coastal seabird species was relevant in both marine regions. In contrast, a clear shortfall was identified for offshore seabird species in the Atlantic region and for cetaceans in both regions. Moreover, the size of MPAs appeared to be a crucial feature, with larger MPAs being relevant for more species. Finally, we showed that the proposed large offshore areas of interest would constitute a highly relevant network for all offshore species, with e.g. up to 61% of the Globicephalinae population in the Atlantic French waters being present within these areas.

Comparative distribution of Syrian and great spotted woodpeckers in different landscapes of Poland

Species often express some differences in habitat choice which enable their co-occurrence in sympatry and this phenomenon is particularly noticeable for related taxa and during range shifts. Here, co-distribution of two sibling woodpeckers (Syrian woodpecker Dendrocopos syriacus and great spotted woodpecker Dendrocopos major) in different types of urban, rural and riparian landscapes of Poland is presented. The Syrian woodpecker reached high densities in urban (city) landscape, but it was less common in town, rural and riparian areas, and everywhere it mostly occupied orchards and poplar and willow hedges. In contrast, the great spotted woodpecker was the dominant species in most areas, except city and everywhere was associated with forests or larger wooded areas (like parks). The Syrian woodpecker was dependent on the presence of softwood trees (poplars, willows), but it needed generally less than 40 % of wooded area in its territories, whereas the second species needed more than 70 %. The data presented here, together with information available from other areas in Central Europe, suggest that protection of Syrian woodpecker (species annexed in the European Union Bird Directive) should not be restricted to only rural landscapes but also needs to include its urban populations. Protection of this species should be focused on preservation of softwood tree hedges and woodlots and traditional orchards.

Is the choice of conservation measures influenced by the targeted natural habitats? The case of French coastal Natura 2000 sites

Natura 2000 (N2K) is a European network of protected areas that has grown out of the implementation of the Birds Directive (1979) and the Habitats Directive (1992). To date, the literature focussing on “conservation measures” required by the directives has been scarce. This article contributes to a better understanding of associated practices with regard to these measures in the case of France.We put forward a quantitative approach based on 1378 “action-sheets” randomly extracted from 113 management documents of French Natura 2000 coastal sites. These action-sheets are considered to be the physical embodiment of the notion of the conservation measure itself. The analysis concentrates on the “type” of the proposed measures, expressed in terms of a 9-category public policy instrument typology.In terms of frequency of quotation, we show the specific expected importance of three instruments: the work of Natura 2000 project managers, ecological/civil engineering, and data production. Awareness-raising is the main expected means to the end of countering harmful practices and detrimental behaviours.We then propose an exploratory analysis of contextual variables explaining the choice of the type of measure, with an AIC-based procedure of model selection and averaging. The interest of this approach is exemplified by a focus on five explanatory variables reflecting the kind of natural habitats concerned by the measures.Our results show the specificity of instruments associated with coastal habitats. In particular, whereas coastal terrestrial habitats are statistically managed by physical measures (physical regulation and engineering), methods for managing coastal marine habitats are geared towards, on the one hand, awareness raising and participatory approaches, and on the other, regulatory approaches and an integration of Natura 2000 objectives into exogenous institutional frameworks.The results we obtained shed light on the limits and prospects of the implementation of the Natura 2000 program in the marine environment.

Pubblica partecipazione nell’implementazione della rete Natura 2000 in Italia: le esperienze dei portatori d’interessi

Abstract: Public participation in the implementation of the Natura 2000 network in Italy: the stakeholders’ experiences. Natura 2000 is an ecological network of protected areas identified by the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and the Birds Directive (79/409/EC) - recently replaced by the Directive 2009/147/EC - in order to ensure the long-term protection of endangered species in their natural habitats in European Union (EU) territory. EU Member States are responsible for developing and implementing the procedures defined by Habitats Directive, but there are no specific recommendations about participation of stakeholders and local community in the decision-making process. Consequently, each country has adopted a different participatory strategy taking into account the principles of integration approach. The integration approach is based on combining human activities and nature conservation purposes in the same area or, at least, in areas in close proximity. In Italy, the implementation of Natura 2000 network was developed at local level (Regions and Autonomous Provinces) using different approaches and procedures. Starting from these considerations, the aim of the study was to analyse the stakeholders’ involvement process during the implementation of Habitats Directive in Italy and the management of Natura 2000 sites. This study was realized using three main criteria with the respective indicators: (1) inclusiveness of participatory process; (2) democracy of participatory process; (3) cooperation and conflicts during the implementation process of Natura 2000 network. The data were collected through the administration by email of a semi-structured questionnaire to 56 stakeholders divided in four main groups of interest (public administrations, universities and research centres, environmental associations, private organizations). The results of the survey show that the participatory process was characterized by a low level of inclusiveness despite the existence of some best practices at local level. In many cases, the decisions were taken by a low number of stakeholders - mostly public administrations - while the individuals of local community were only informed. Conversely, the results highlights as positive aspect the increasing level of trust among stakeholders after the Natura 2000 network implementation process.

Tracking Progress Toward EU Biodiversity Strategy Targets: EU Policy Effects in Preserving its Common Farmland Birds

AbstractMaximizing the area under biodiversity‐related conservation measures is a main target of the European Union (EU) Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. We analyzed whether agrienvironmental schemes (AES) within EU common agricultural policy, special protected areas for birds (SPAs), and Annex I designation within EU Birds Directive had an effect on bird population changes using monitoring data from 39 farmland bird species from 1981 to 2012 at EU scale. Populations of resident and short‐distance migrants were larger with increasing SPAs and AES coverage, while Annex I species had higher population growth rates with increasing SPAs, indicating that SPAs may contribute to the protection of mainly target species and species spending most of their life cycle in the EU. Because farmland birds are in decline and the negative relationship of agricultural intensification with their population growth rates was evident during the implementation of AES and SPAs, EU policies seem to generally attenuate the declines of farmland bird populations, but not to reverse them.

Dialectics of nature: The emergence of policy on the management of commercial fisheries in english European Marine Sites

European Marine Sites (EMS), designated under either the Habitats or Birds Directives, protect the biodiversity of the European Union (EU) and contribute to the implementation of the 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity [1]. The introduction of this form of marine protected area (MPA), as a consequence of EU conservation directives, introduced new legal obligations in waters long exploited by inshore fishing communities. Although the Habitats and Birds Directive have been in place since 1992 and 1979 respectively (the 1979 Directive updated in 2009), it has not been until more recently (2014) that ongoing inshore fisheries activities in England, which predate designation of sites, have been systematically assessed and managed, for their impact in protected sites. In practice it was assumed by many MPA practitioners that at the time of designation of EMS, ongoing activities would be compatible with the conservation objectives of these sites. This paper illustrates the introduction of a general and systematic “revised approach” to managing fisheries in all English EMSs, and how this represented a change in government policy which can be traced directly to a legal campaign between 2008 and 2012 by two UK environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (eNGOs). The paper elucidates this iterative marine policy process analysing the dialogue between government bodies and eNGOs and show how the resulting interpretation of conservation law, has sought to resolve the tensions between the precautionary approach as emphasised by the eNGOs and the Government's desire for proportionality of response.