Bird Fecal Samples Research Articles

Highly Sensitive Detection of Salmonella typhimurium Using a Colorimetric Paper-Based Analytical Device Coupled with Immunomagnetic Separation.

Salmonella causes over a million foodborne illnesses per year in the United States resulting in more hospitalizations and deaths than any other foodborne bacterial pathogen. To help prevent outbreaks, a rapid, portable, sensitive, and reliable method for onsite detection of bacteria that can be used in different sample matrices would be beneficial. Herein, we present a colorimetric paper-based analytical device (PAD) combined with immunomagnetic separation (IMS) for detecting Salmonella typhimurium. IMS anti-Salmonella coated magnetic beads were applied to capture and separate bacteria from the sample matrix and preconcentrate it into small volumes before testing on paper. To directly detect S.typhimurium after IMS, a sandwich immunoassay was implemented into the procedure with β-galactosidase (β-gal) as the detection enzyme. Using the antibody/enzyme complex, we performed a colorimetric assay with chlorophenol red-β-d-galactopyranoside (CPRG) for bacteria quantification. The method was confirmed to be highly specific to S.typhimurium without interference from other pathogenic bacteria like Escherichia coli. Using this system, the limit of detection of S.typhimurium was found to be 102 CFU mL-1 in culturing solution without any pre-enrichment. In addition, distance-based detection where the concentration is read as the length of colored band formed on the reaction was also demonstrated. This assay had a detection limit of 102 CFU mL-1 for S.typhimurium, providing an instrument-free quantitative analysis alternative to spot tests, which require image analysis. Finally, the proposed platform was applied for detection of S.typhimurium in inoculated Starling bird fecal samples and whole milk with detection limits of 105 CFU g-1 and 103 CFU mL-1, respectively, and this is the first published paper-based detection method for S.typhimurium in bird feces and whole milk.

Genomic and clinical evidence uncovers the enterohepatic species Helicobacter valdiviensis as a potential human intestinal pathogen.

Helicobacter valdiviensis is a recently described enterohepatic species isolated from wild bird's fecal samples. Currently, its pathogenic potential and clinical significance are unknown mainly due to the lack of whole-genome sequences to compare with other helicobacters and the absence of specific screenings to determine its prevalence in humans. The species type strain (WBE14T ) was whole-genome-sequenced, and comparative analyses were carried out including the genomes from other Helicobacter species to determine the exact phylogenetic position of H.valdiviensis and to study the presence and evolution of virulence determinants. In parallel, stools from diarrheic patients and healthy individuals were screened by PCR to assess the clinical incidence of H.valdiviensis. Helicobacter valdiviensis belongs to a monophyletic clade conformed by H.canadensis, H.pullorum, H.winghamensis, H.rodentium, and H.apodemus. Its predicted genome size is 2176246bp., with 30% of G+C content and 2064 annotated protein-coding genes. The patterns of virulence factors in H.valdiviensis were similar to other enterohepatic species, but evidence of horizontal gene transfer from Campylobacter species was detected for key genes like those coding for the CDT subunits. Positive PCR results confirmed the presence of H.valdiviensis in 2 of 254 (0.78%) stools of patients with acute diarrhea while not a single sample was positive in healthy individuals. Horizontal gene transfer has contributed to shape the gene repertory of H.valdiviensis, which codes for virulence factors conserved in other pathogens that are well-known human pathogens. Additionally, the detection of H.valdiviensisDNA in diarrheic patients supports its role as a potential emergent intestinal pathogen. Further, sampling efforts are needed to uncover the clinical relevance of this species, which should be accomplished by the isolation of H.valdiviensis from ill humans and the obtention of whole genomes from clinical isolates.

Campylobacter ornithocola sp. nov., a novel member of the Campylobacter lari group isolated from wild bird faecal samples

During a study on the prevalence and diversity of campylobacteria in wild birds faecal samples from the city of Valdivia (southern Chile) 17 Gram-stain-negative, curved-rod-shaped isolates, were initially identified as Campylobacter lari by PCR-RFLP. Further identification by 16S rRNA sequence analysis revealed that they formed a distinct group in the genus Campylobacter. This unique position was confirmed by the results of analysis of rpoB, atpA and cpn60 gene sequences. The average nucleotide identity between the representative strain WBE38T and the type strain of the most closely related taxon C. larisubsp.concheus (LMG 11760) was 90.8 %. The oxidase and urease activity of the novel isolates enabled them to be phenotypically differentiated from species of the genus Campylobacter with validly published names. Therefore, on the basis of phenotypic, genetic and genomic characterizations, the results of this study clearly indicate that these strains represent a novel species within the genus Campylobacter, for which the name Campylobacter ornithocola sp. nov. is proposed, with the type strain WBE38T (=CECT 9147T=LMG 29815T).

Salmonella in Wild Birds Utilizing Protected and Human Impacted Habitats, Uganda

As human populations in Africa expand, humans encroach and modify wildlife habitats for farming, fishing, tourism, or settlement. Anthropogenic activities in shared environments may promote transmission of zoonotic pathogens between humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Between July 2012 and February 2014, we evaluated Salmonella prevalence, serovars, genotypes, and antibiotic resistant phenotypes in resident and migratory birds utilizing human-impacted habitats in northwestern Lake Victoria and protected habitats in Queen Elisabeth National Park. Salmonella occurrence in the urban environment was assessed by sampling storm-water and wastewater from a channel that drains Kampala City into Lake Victoria. Salmonella was detected in 4.3% pooled bird fecal samples, and 57.1% of environmental samples. While birds in impacted and protected areas shared serovars, the genotypes were distinct. We found distinct strains in birds and the environment suggesting some strains in birds are host adapted, and strains circulating in the environment may not necessarily disseminate to birds. Conversely, birds in both impacted and protected areas shared strains with the urban environment, suggesting Salmonella disseminates between impacted environments and birds across sites. Overall, more strains were observed in the urban environment compared to birds, and poses risk of Salmonella reemergence in birds and transmission across species and space.

High Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Campylobacter jejuni in Wild Crows and Pigeons.

The occurrence, seasonal variation and genetic diversity of Campylobacter spp. in pigeons and crows over a 1-year period were evaluated. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 166 (34.6 %) out of 480 wild bird faecal samples. The occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in faecal samples was higher among crows (39.2 %) than pigeons (30.0 %), (P < 0.05). Campylobacter jejuni was the most common species detected among wild bird faecal samples (98.2 %). Meanwhile, Campylobacter coli prevalence in wild bird faecal samples was low-6 %. The Simpson's diversity index of C. jejuni flaA RFLP types was lower in pigeons (D = 0.88) compared with C. jejuni isolates detected in crows (D = 0.97). Obtained results revealed that C. jejuni are widely prevalent among crows and pigeons, indicating these wild birds as potential infection sources to humans. Further studies are required to determine crows and pigeons role in zoonotic transmission of Campylobacter.

Plastic sheets: a new method for collecting faecal samples with seeds dispersed by birds

Abstract:For birds, we tested the efficacy of a technique used to obtain faecal samples and their seed content from bats by placing plastic sheets below mist nets. This method was compared with that of collecting faecal samples using cotton bags. Plastic sheets were placed below each of eight mist nets to obtain faecal samples from birds caught in cloud forest remnants. Each bird was then placed separately in a cotton bag to catch any other seeds excreted. There were 84 faecal samples in total: 64 with no seeds and 20 with seeds; of the latter 65% were obtained from the plastic sheets. A total of 407 seeds were collected, 317 from 11 plant species were collected on the plastic sheets and 90 belonging to six plant species in the bags. Seed richness and abundance were significantly greater for samples obtained using the plastic sheets than with the cotton bags. Although the number of bird faecal samples obtained did not differ between methods (13 vs 7), with the plastic sheets the number of faecal samples with seeds increased. Thus, to obtain more representative faecal samples from frugivorous birds, we strongly recommend the use of plastic sheets as part of the technique.

Diagnosis of gastric cryptosporidiosis in birds using a duplex real-time PCR assay

Three species and several genotypes of Cryptosporidium can infect the epithelial surface of the bursa of Fabricius, the respiratory tract, the proventriculus, the intestine, and the urinary tract in birds. There is reason to believe that gastric cryptosporidiosis in birds is caused by Cryptosporidium galli and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III, resulting in a chronic illness of the proventriculus that can lead to a debilitating and fatal clinical condition in birds of the orders Passeriformes and Psittaciformes. The objectives of the present study were to develop a duplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that targets the 18S rRNA gene to simultaneously detect C. galli and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III DNA and to compare the duplex real-time PCR results to those of nested PCR targeting a partial fragment of the 18S rRNA gene, followed by sequencing of the amplified products (nPCR/S). A total of 1027 fecal samples were collected from birds of the orders Psittaciformes and Passeriformes originating either from captivity or the wild. Duplex real-time PCR results were positive in 580 (56.47%) and 21 (2.04%) samples, respectively, for C. galli and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III, whereas nPCR/S was positive in 28 (2.73%) and three (0.29%) samples, respectively, for C. galli and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III. Novel host birds were identified for both of the above gastric species, and it was also possible to identify Cryptosporidium baileyi and, for the first time in Brazil, Cryptosporidium avian genotype V. The duplex real-time PCR assay developed in the present study represents a sensitive and specific method for the detection of C. galli and Cryptosporidium avian genotype III in bird fecal samples. Moreover, this method may serve as an alternative to nPCR/S as a gold standard for the diagnosis of gastric cryptosporidiosis in birds.

Multilocus sequence typing confirms wild birds as the source of a Campylobacter outbreak associated with the consumption of raw peas.

From August to September 2008, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) assisted the Alaska Division of Public Health with an outbreak investigation of campylobacteriosis occurring among the residents of Southcentral Alaska. During the investigation, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from human, raw pea, and wild bird fecal samples confirmed the epidemiologic link between illness and the consumption of raw peas contaminated by sandhill cranes for 15 of 43 epidemiologically linked human isolates. However, an association between the remaining epidemiologically linked human infections and the pea and wild bird isolates was not established. To better understand the molecular epidemiology of the outbreak, C. jejuni isolates (n=130; 59 from humans, 40 from peas, and 31 from wild birds) were further characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Here we present the molecular evidence to demonstrate the association of many more human C.jejuni infections associated with the outbreak with raw peas and wild bird feces. Among all sequence types (STs) identified, 26 of 39 (67%) were novel and exclusive to the outbreak. Five clusters of overlapping STs (n=32 isolates; 17 from humans, 2 from peas, and 13 from wild birds) were identified. In particular, cluster E (n=7 isolates; ST-5049) consisted of isolates from humans,peas, and wild birds. Novel STs clustered closely with isolates typically associated with wild birds and the environment but distinct from lineages commonly seen in human infections. Novel STs and alleles recovered from human outbreak isolates allowed additional infections caused by these rare genotypes to be attributed to the contaminated raw peas.

Description of Helicobacter valdiviensis sp. nov., an Epsilonproteobacteria isolated from wild bird faecal samples

Two Gram-stain-negative, gently curved rod-shaped isolates (WBE14(T) and WBE19), recovered from wild bird faecal samples in the city of Valdivia (Southern Chile) were subjected to a polyphasic taxonomic study. Results of a genus-specific PCR indicated that these isolates belonged to the genus Helicobacter. This was further confirmed by a phylogenetic analyses based on the 16S rRNA, 60 kDa heat-shock protein (cpn60) and gyrase subunit B (gyrB) genes, where both strains formed a novel phylogenetic line within this genus. The 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity of strain WBE14(T) to the type strains of all other species of the genus Helicobacter examined ranged from 89.4 to 97.0%; Helicobacter brantae and Helicobacter pametensis were the most closely related species. However, on the basis of the protein-coding genes Helicobacter pullorum and Helicobacter canadensis are the most closely related species. These data, together with their different morphological and biochemical characteristics, revealed that these strains represent a novel species, for which the name Helicobacter valdiviensis sp. nov. is proposed, with the type strain WBE14(T) ( = CECT 8410(T) = LMG 27920(T)).

Diversity, Bioactivity and Drug Development of Cultivable Actinobacteria in Six Species of Bird Feces

In order to provide new lead compounds of drugs and other useful products, the diversity and some bioactivities of cultivable actinobacteria in bird feces were studied．Six species of bird fecal samples were collected from Yunnan Wild Animal Park and bank of Dian Lake. The pure cultures of actinobacteria were isolated from these samples by using 6 different media. The partial 16S rRNA gene sequences of 207 selected strains were determined, the phylogenetic analysis was carried out, and antimicrobial activities were determined by using agar diffusion method. The key biosynthase genes (CYP, AHBA and SAL) of antibiotics were also detected. Total 28 genera of actinobacteria from all the samples were identified. 18 genera were identified from Pavo cristatus feces, and the actinomycete community was the most complex. These actinobacteria had wide inhibition against 10 test microbes. In 30, 25, and 36 strains of actinobacteria isolated from Pavo cristatus, Grus japonensis and Larus ridibundus feces respectively, average 22.2%, 8.9% and 40.8% strains had the key biosynthase genes encoding CYP, AHBA and SAL. More than 30 bioactive secondary metabolites from several actinomycete strains of bird feces were isolated and characterized. The study shows that birds fecal actinobacteria are a new potential source for discovering new drugs and other industry products.

Effect of Incubation Temperature on the Detection of Thermophilic Campylobacter Species from Freshwater Beaches, Nearby Wastewater Effluents, and Bird Fecal Droppings

This large-scale study compared incubation temperatures (37°C versus 42°C) to study the detection of thermophilic Campylobacter species, including Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli, and C. lari, in various surface water samples and bird fecal droppings around Hamilton Harbor, Lake Ontario. The putative culture isolates obtained from incubation temperatures of 37 and 42°C were confirmed by Campylobacter genus- and species-specific triplex PCR assays targeting the 16S rRNA gene and the 16S-23S rRNA gene internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. A total of 759 water, wastewater, and bird fecal dropping samples were tested. Positive amplification reactions for the genus Campylobacter were found for 454 (60%) samples incubated at 37°C, compared to 258 (34%) samples incubated at 42°C. C. jejuni (16%) and C. lari (12%) were detected significantly more frequently at the 42°C incubation temperature than at 37°C (8% and 5%, respectively). In contrast, significantly higher rates of C. coli (14%) and other Campylobacter spp. (36%) were detected at the 37°C incubation temperature than at 42°C (8% and 7%, respectively). These results were consistent across surface water, wastewater, and bird fecal dropping samples. At times, Campylobacter spp. were recovered and detected at 37°C (3% for C. jejuni, 10% for C. coli, and 3% for C. lari) when the same samples incubated at 42°C were negative. A significantly higher rate of other Campylobacter spp. was detected only at 37°C (32%) than only at 42°C (3%). These results indicate that incubation temperature can significantly influence the culturability and detection of thermophilic and other fastidious Campylobacter spp. and that a comprehensive characterization of the Campylobacter spp. in surface water, wastewaters, or bird fecal droppings will require incubation at both 37 and 42°C.

Novel myco-like DNA viruses discovered in the faecal matter of various animals

A wide variety of novel single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses have been found in faecal matter of chimpanzees, cows, rodents, bats, badgers, foxes and pigs over the last few years. Using a combination of rolling circle amplification coupled with restriction enzyme digests based approach as well as a next generation sequencing informed approach, we have recovered fourteen full genomes of ssDNA viruses which exhibit genomic features described for members of the recently proposed gemycircularvirus group from a wide variety of mammal and bird faecal samples across New Zealand. The fourteen novel ssDNA viruses (2122–2290nt) encode two major proteins, a replication associated protein (Rep) and a capsid protein (Cp) which are bi-directionally transcribed. Interestingly, the Rep of these novel viruses are similar to gemycircularviruses detected in insects, cassava leaves, and badger faecal matter, the novel viruses share sequence similarities with the mycovirus sclerotinia sclerotiorum hypovirulence-associated DNA virus 1 (SsHADV-1) and Rep-like sequences found in fungal genomes. Pairwise sequence similarities between the 14 novel genomes with other related viral isolates (gemycircularviruses) indicated that they share greater than 55.8% genome-wide identity. Additionally, they share between 55% and 59% pairwise identity with putative novel ssDNA virus genomes recently isolated from sewage baminivirus, niminivirus and nephavirus. Based on the similarities to SsHADV-1 and Rep-like sequences found in fungal genomes, these novel gemycircularviruses may infect fungi.

Integration of exotic seeds into an Azorean seed dispersal network

Seed dispersal plays a central role in plant ecology. Among animals, birds are particularly important seed dispersers, often incorporating exotic plants into their diets and facilitating their integration in the communities. Network theory offers a highly informative framework to study the structural and functional attributes of complex interactions networks. We used information from bird fecal samples to build a quantitative seed dispersal network for the last fragment of native laurel forest in the island of Sao Miguel—Azores with three specific objectives: (1) to assess the integration of exotic seeds into seed dispersal; (2) to evaluate the impact of exotic plants in network structure; (3) to test the potential of an exotic species to reduce the seed dispersal of a co-occurring native, via competition for seed dispersers. The seed dispersal network was based on the analysis of 1,121 droppings and described 74 unique interactions between 41 plant species and 7 bird species. Exotic seeds deeply infiltrated into the seed dispersal network forming the majority (59 %) of seeds in the droppings and including those of three globally invasive plants. Overall, birds depended equally on native and exotic fruits despite the lower abundance of the latter in the study area. In an experiment, birds did not show a preference for fruits of the exotic Leycesteria formosa over the native Vaccinium cylindraceum consuming them equally. However, the presence of the exotic plant negatively affected the number of native seeds dispersed, by diverting some of the consumers of the native fruits. Taken altogether the results reveal an alarming invasion level of seed dispersal systems in one of the last remnant native forests of the Azores.

Consistency in the host specificity and host sensitivity of the Bacteroides HF183 marker for sewage pollution tracking

The host specificity (H-SPF) and host sensitivity (H-SNV) values of the sewage-associated HF183 Bacteroides marker in the current study were compared with the previously published studies in South East Queensland (SEQ), Australia, by testing a large number of wastewater and faecal DNA samples (n=293) from 11 target and nontarget host groups. This was carried out to obtain information on the consistency in the H-SPF and H-SNV values of the HF183 marker for sewage pollution tracking in SEQ. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis was used to determine the presence/absence of the HF183 marker in wastewater and faecal DNA samples. Among the human composite wastewater (n=59) from sewage treatment plants and individual human (n=20) faecal DNA samples tested, 75 (95%) were PCR positive for the HF183 marker. The overall H-SNV of this marker in target host group was 0·95 (maximum of 1·00). Among the 214 nontarget animal faecal DNA samples tested, 201 (94%) samples were negative for the HF183 marker. Six chicken, five dog and two bird faecal DNA samples, however, were positive for the marker. The overall H-SPF of the HF183 marker to differentiate between target and nontarget faecal DNA samples was 0·94 (maximum of 1·00). The H-SNV (0·95) and H-SPF (0·94) values obtained in this study was slightly lower than previous studies (H-SNV value of 1·00 in 2007 and 1·00 in 2009; H-SPF value of 1·00 in 2007 and 0·99 in 2009). Nonetheless, the overall high H-SNV (0·98) and H-SPF (0·97) values of the HF183 marker over the past 4 years (i.e. 2007-2011) suggest that the HF183 marker can be reliably used for the detection of sewage pollution in environmental waters in SEQ. In the current study, the HF183 marker was detected in small number nontarget animal faecal samples. Care should be taken to interpret results obtained from catchments or waterways that might be potentially contaminated with dog faecal matter or poultry litter.

An Attempt to Identify the Likely Sources of Escherichia coli Harboring Toxin Genes in Rainwater Tanks

In this study, 200 Escherichia coli isolates from 22 rainwater tank samples in Southeast Queensland, Australia were tested for the presence of 10 toxin genes (i.e., stx(1), stx(2), hlyA, ehxA, LT1, ST1, cdtB, east1, cnf1, and cvaC) associated with intestinal and extraintestinal pathotypes. Among the 22 rainwater tanks tested, 5 (28%), 7 (32%), 7 (32%), and 1 (5%) tanks contained E. coli harboring ST1, east1, cdtB, and cvaC genes, respectively. Of the 200 E. coli isolates from the 22 tanks, 43 (22%) strains from 13 (59%) tanks were harboring toxin gene. An attempt was made to establish a link between bird and possum fecal contamination and the presence of these potential clinically significant E. coli strains harboring toxin genes in rainwater tanks. Among the 214 E. coli isolates tested from birds, 30 (14%), 11 (5%) and 18 (8%) strains contained east1, cdtB, and cvaC toxin genes, respectively. Similarly, among the 214 possum E. coli isolates, 74 (35%) contained only the east1 toxin gene. All E. coli strains from rainwater tanks, bird and possum fecal samples harboring toxin genes were biochemically fingerprinted. Biochemical phenotypes (BPTs) of 14 (33%) E. coli strains from 7 rainwater tanks and 9 (21%) E. coli strains from 6 rainwater tanks were identical to a number of BPTs of E. coli strains isolated from bird and possum feces suggesting that these animals may be the sources of these E. coli in rainwater tanks. as a precautionary measure, it is recommended that rainwater should be treated prior to drinking. In addition, proper maintenance of roof and gutter hygiene and elimination of overhanging tree branches and other structures where possible to prevent the movement of possums are highly recommended.

Fecal Indicators and Zoonotic Pathogens in Household Drinking Water Taps Fed from Rainwater Tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia

In this study, the microbiological quality of household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks was assessed by monitoring the numbers of Escherichia coli bacteria and enterococci from 24 households in Southeast Queensland (SEQ), Australia. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was also used for the quantitative detection of zoonotic pathogens in water samples from rainwater tanks and connected household taps. The numbers of zoonotic pathogens were also estimated in fecal samples from possums and various species of birds by using qPCR, as possums and birds are considered to be the potential sources of fecal contamination in roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW). Among the 24 households, 63% of rainwater tank and 58% of connected household tap water (CHTW) samples contained E. coli and exceeded Australian drinking water guidelines of <1 CFU E. coli per 100 ml water. Similarly, 92% of rainwater tanks and 83% of CHTW samples also contained enterococci. In all, 21%, 4%, and 13% of rainwater tank samples contained Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Giardia lamblia, respectively. Similarly, 21% of rainwater tank and 13% of CHTW samples contained Campylobacter spp. and G. lamblia, respectively. The number of E. coli (P = 0.78), Enterococcus (P = 0.64), Campylobacter (P = 0.44), and G. lamblia (P = 0.50) cells in rainwater tanks did not differ significantly from the numbers observed in the CHTW samples. Among the 40 possum fecal samples tested, Campylobacter spp., Cryptosporidium parvum, and G. lamblia were detected in 60%, 13%, and 30% of samples, respectively. Among the 38 bird fecal samples tested, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., C. parvum, and G. lamblia were detected in 24%, 11%, 5%, and 13% of the samples, respectively. Household tap water samples fed from rainwater tanks tested in the study appeared to be highly variable. Regular cleaning of roofs and gutters, along with pruning of overhanging tree branches, might also prove effective in reducing animal fecal contamination of rainwater tanks.

Prevalence of Campylobacter in Wild Birds of the Mid-Atlantic Region, USA

We evaluated the occurrence of three Campylobacter species--C. jejuni, C. coli, and C. lari--from 333 wild bird fecal samples collected at Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research in Newark, Delaware, in 2008. Using multiplex polymerase chain reaction, we detected C. jejuni from six avian families with an overall prevalence rate of 7.2%. We did not detect any other Campylobacter species. Campylobacter jejuni prevalence ranged widely between different avian families with crows (Corvidae) and gulls (Laridae) having the highest prevalence rates (23% and 25%, respectively).

Multidrug resistant yeasts in synanthropic wild birds

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to investigate the presence of multidrug resistant yeasts in the faeces of synanthropic wild birds from the Bangsar suburb of Kuala Lumpur.MethodsSpecies characterisations of yeast isolates and determinations of antimycotic susceptibility profiles were undertaken using the commercial characterization kit, Integral System Yeasts Plus (Liofilchem, Italy).ResultsFourteen species of yeasts were detected in the bird faecal samples.Candida albicans was present in 28.89% of bird faecal samples, Candida krusei (13.33%), Candida tropicalis (4.44%), Candida glabrata (4.44%), Candida parapsilosis (2.22%), Candida lambica (2.22%), Candida stellatoidea (2.22%), Candida rugosa (2.22%) and Candida lusitaniae (2.22%). Amongst the non-candidal yeast isolates, Cryptococcus laurentii was present in 6.67% of bird faecal samples, Cryptococcus uniguttulatus (4.44%), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (4.44%), Trichosporon pullulans (2.22%), Trichosporon pullulans/Cryptococcus albidus (8.89%) and Rhodotorula rubra/Rhodotorula glutinis (4.44%). Of the isolated yeasts, 18.1% (or 26/144) were found to be resistant to all 11 antimycotic agents they were tested against i.e. Nystatin, Amphotericin B, Flucytosine, Econazole, Ketoconazole, Clotrimazole, Miconazole, Itraconazole, Voriconazole, Fluconazole 16 and Fluconazole 64. 45.8% (or 66/144) of the bird faecal yeast isolates were resistant to four or more of the 11 antimycotic agents they were tested against.ConclusionsThis finding is of public health significance as these synanthropic wild birds may be reservoirs for transmission of drug resistant yeast infections to humans.

Surveillance for highly pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds in the USA

As part of the USA's National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza, an Interagency Strategic Plan for the Early Detection of Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza in Wild Migratory Birds was developed and implemented. From 1 April 2006 through 31 March 2009, 261,946 samples from wild birds and 101,457 wild bird fecal samples were collected in the USA; no highly pathogenic avian influenza was detected. The United States Department of Agriculture, and state and tribal cooperators accounted for 213,115 (81%) of the wild bird samples collected; 31, 27, 21 and 21% of the samples were collected from the Atlantic, Pacific, Central and Mississippi flyways, respectively. More than 250 species of wild birds in all 50 states were sampled. The majority of wild birds (86%) were dabbling ducks, geese, swans and shorebirds. The apparent prevalence of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses during biological years 2007 and 2008 was 9.7 and 11.0%, respectively. The apparent prevalence of H5 and H7 subtypes across all species sampled were 0.5 and 0.06%, respectively. The pooled fecal samples (n= 101,539) positive for low pathogenic avian influenza were 4.0, 6.7 and 4.7% for biological years 2006, 2007 and 2008, respectively. The highly pathogenic early detection system for wild birds developed and implemented in the USA represents the largest coordinated wildlife disease surveillance system ever conducted. This effort provided evidence that wild birds in the USA were free of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (given the expected minimum prevalence of 0.001%) at the 99.9% confidence level during the surveillance period.

Wild Bird’s-eye View of Influenza Virus A(H1N1) Phylogenetic Evolution

Wild bird fecal samples collected and characterized by the USDA as part of a national surveillance effort were sequenced to study the genetic relatedness of avian, swine, and human H1 and N1 subtypes. Our results find that the 2009 H1N1 human outbreak is closely related to swine virus, but falls into different clades in the H1 and N1 trees. Further, there is evidence of multiple viral genetic exchanges between birds and swine. Ongoing research across host species contributes to an understanding of the circulation of influenza viruses.