Biological Weapons Research Articles

Metodološke smernice za pojmovnu divergenciju bioterorizma, agroterorizma, biobezbednosti i agrobezbednosti

Due to the possible misuse of weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, biological, radiological), terrorism has acquired the attributes of a modern global threat - "megaterrorism". Among the potential unwanted scenarios, one of the most realistic is bioterrorism, because biological weapons are the easiest to produce and misuse. At the same time, one of the most realistic scenarios of bioterrorism is agroterrorism, conducted through the misuse of pathogenic microorganisms, toxins and their carriers to intentionally cause infectious diseases and mortality in humans, animals and plants, by polluting agricultural resources, water and food for humans and animals, and by more permanent pollution of the environment. Because of the realistic and possible consequences of "bio-agro-terrorism", a discourse of biosecurity and bioprotection/biodefense has been developed in the theory and practice of security, aimed at protecting the economy, the environment and the health of people and other living beings from diseases and bioterrorism, and within it agrosecurity, which aims at protecting agricultural and food resources from agro-terrorism and its harmful consequences. The Republic of Serbia also tries to follow these trends, which, among other things, includes the implementation of the laws and strategies on food safety. As it is a new multidisciplinary approach in security, numerous conceptual and terminological divergences and convergences around its concept are evident, so the aim of this paper is to differentiate the concepts of bioterrorism, agroterrorism, biosecurity and agrosecurity.

ASSESSMENT OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE DETERIORATION OF THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SITUATION DURING HOSTILITIES.

The aim: Scientific substantiation of the methodology for predicting the consequences of the worsening of the epidemic situation on the territory of Ukraine during military operations for the timely adoption of measures for the medical protection of military personnel in conditions of biological contamination. Materials and methods: Determination and generalization of the impact of biological contamination due to the use of biological weapons were carried out considering the main determinants of the epidemic process using the index and coefficient of medical protection. Applied methods of scientific research: epidemiological, system, and information approach. Results: The authors proposed indicators that consider the pathogenicity of the infectious agent, contagiousness, the degree of non-specific protection of servicemen, specific protection of servicemen, and the sanitary-epidemiological state of the area of operations of troops (forces). Relevant epidemic situations were simulated, and the index and coefficient of medical protection were calculated to predict the consequences of the worsening of the epidemic situation to make timely decisions regarding the implementation of medical protection measures for military personnel in conditions of biological contamination during the repulsion of armed aggression. Conclusions: In the conditions of biological contamination, when biological weapons and biological terrorism are used, the epidemic process in the army is intensified, which requires timely decisions regarding the implementation of medical protection measures for military personnel in conditions of biological contamination.

Review of the epidemiological situation on Anthrax around the world and the Forecast for Kyrgyzstan

This review, prepared on the basis of WHO materials and from medical websites, and monographs by domestic and foreign researchers, provides information on cases of infection of humans and animals with anthrax in the world. The epidemiological situation for this especially dangerous infection remains quite complicated and is assessed as tense and does not tend to stabilize due to the existence of soil foci, which manifest themselves for many years as periodic outbreaks among farm animals and people. Cutaneous anthrax is an extremely preventable disease, yet still accounts for 95% of all anthrax cases, and has left many regions endemic. The objectives of this study was to review published outbreak investigations for cutaneous anthrax, while examining the current and new risk factors, as well as the present control measures and their effectiveness at preventing future outbreaks. A literature search of articles was performed using PubMed, Google Scholar, and New England Journal of Medicine, website of WHO, (HAW HamburgLibrary). Articles in English and pertaining to human subjects only, were retrieved. Seven articles included in this study examined sources of outbreak for cutaneous anthrax, investigated suspected cases using clinical diagnosis and surveys, and evaluated current control measures. Three studies reported relative risk, suggesting there is a likely association between butchering sick animals and infection. Further findings suggested a correlation between an individual's socioeconomic status and the likelihood of contracting anthrax. Additionally, the quality of livestock in the area can have a cyclical nature on cutaneous anthrax infections among humans. The cumulative evidence concludes that an improvement of surveillance and control measures is needed in endemic regions, and future investigation of new risk factors is required. Anthrax is a highly dangerous zoonotic infectious disease, the causative agent of which is the Gram-positive spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis, which belongs to the pathogenicity group II. Almost all types of warm-blooded animals, including humans, are susceptible to anthrax. For herbivores, the source of infection is soil containing B. anthracis spores. The high resistance of anthrax spores to environmental factors, the ability to persist in the soil for a long time, and under certain conditions to pass into a vegetative form, makes the fight against this infection an extremely difficult task for medicine and veterinary medicine. A person becomes infected by household contact from contaminated objects of animal origin, and from 2,000 to 20,000 people fall ill every year in the world. Although anthrax is well controlled in the developed countries, anthrax remains of a global concern because B. anthracis spores can potentially be used as a biological weapon. On the other hand, some local anthrax outbreak has been recorded in western countries. For example, a case of naturallyacquired inhalation anthrax was reported in London, 2008 and another case was recorded in Scotland in 2006. Both cases were bongo drummers/drum makers who used imported animal hides. As of 14 January 2010, a total of 14 con- firmed cases of anthrax infection in Scotland were reported and 7 of these died. All cases were heroin user. Possible source of infection is said that heroin is transported in animal skin. In developed countries, there is also an infection risk after contact with a commercial product prepared from inadequately treated wool or leather. Products made from contaminated hair (e.g. shaving brush, wool coat), skins (e.g. drums, drumheads made from animal skin), and bone meal (e.g. fertilizer) may continue to be sources of infection for many years. A review of the epidemiological situation on anthrax in the world for 2021 was carried out. In Kyrgyzstan, eight cases of human infection with the cutaneous form of anthrax were registered in the Suzak district of the Jalal-Abad region and 7 cases in the Aksy district. Epizootics of anthrax among farm and wild animals have been identified mainly in the countries of Central Asia, with the largest number of confirmed human cases detected in Kyrgyzstan. Infection of people with the causative agent of anthrax is associated primarily with the ingestion of the meat of sick and dead anthrax animals, contact with animals during forced slaughter, skinning, and processing of contaminated meat. The level of incidence of anthrax in the territory of Kyrgyzstan in 2021 will be determined by a set of planned volumes of preventive measures and, subject to their proper implementation, will be limited to the detection of sporadic cases of infection that are potentially possible within certain regions of Kyrgyzstan.

Tularemia seroprevalence in humans in the region of the Hittite-Arzawa War (Inner Aegean Region), where the first biological weapon was used 3300 years ago.

: According to Egyptian records, tularemia emerged in the Canaan region, where it was first identified and spread to Anatolia over the Euphrates. It was used as an active biological weapon for the first time in the Hittite-Arzawa War in 1320-1318 BC. This study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of tularemia in the Inner Aegean Region, which is thought to be the region where this war was fought 3300 years ago. Tularemia seropositivity in humans was investigated in 27 villages/neighborhoods in 3 districts in each of Manisa, Kütahya, and Uşak provinces. Before the study, the participants were informed about the disease via posters, and their blood samples were taken following filling out the questionnaire. Microagglutination tests were performed using in-house tularemia antigen and V plate for serological experiments. Rose-Bengal test was also performed on seropositive sera. Of the total of 410 people, 226 (55.12%) were male. The mean age of the volunteers was 43.72 years. The highest participation was from Kütahya Province. According to the results of the tularemia microagglutination test, seropositivity was detected in 6 cases. It was determined that all of the seropositive volunteers were in Kütahya. When the tularemia antibody titers were examined, seropositivity was determined at 1/20-1/160 titers. No positivity was detected in the Rose-Bengal test for cross-reaction. Kütahya has been identified as a risky region in terms of tularemia in the Inner Aegean Region. In order to use the resources in the country economically, first of all, the risk areas in terms of tularemia should be determined by serological studies in all regions. In order to increase awareness about the disease, physicians and filiation teams should be trained in risky areas. Surveillance studies should be conducted to identify and monitor possible sources in areas identified as risky.

Analysis of underground R.C.C. bunker subjected to blast load

A bunker is an underground structure designed to protect the lives of people and valuable goods during the attacks such as nuclear attacks, biological attacks. The increase in terrorist attacks in recent years has shown that the impact of blast loads on building is a serious issue to be considered in design. This paper presents the analysis of an underground R.C.C bunker subjected to blast load considering the different magnitude of blast, different standoff distances, different grades of concrete, in three different types of soil. Components of bunker are similar in each and every consideration. The dynamic behaviour of the underground structure under the blast load has been analyzed with finite element analysis. The bunker structure is analyzed for all the above-mentioned cases, the values of the parameters like total deformation and normal stress are compared among them and the most suitable soil type is suggested for safe against the blast load.

An Analysis of the Popular Identity and Contemporary Implications of the Patriotic Health Movement at the Early Stage of the Founding of New China

In the early years of the founding of New China, the patriotic health movement was launched nationwide to consolidate the new regime, improve national health, improve medical and health care, and respond to American germ warfare. The patriotic health movement achieved the purpose of universal participation in the patriotic health movement by realizing the political identity, national and ethnic identity, master identity, and new moral identity of the people. The Organization's leadership, effective mobilization and propaganda, the central position of the people, and the popularization of scientific health knowledge were fully reflected in this process. The patriotic health movement in the early days of the founding of the nation has brought profound inspiration to the contemporary patriotic health movement and the popular identity of a healthy China, namely, the need to take national emotions as an opportunity, combine national and popular interests, scientific guidance and the power of exemplary role models to achieve popular identity, to internalize it in the heart and externalize it in practice.

Oligonucleotide-conjugated Nanomaterials as Biosensing Platforms to Potential Bioterrorism Tools

Abstract: Availing diseases as warfare began before humans learned that microorganisms are involved in the dissemination of infections. In the past, war brigades had the intention to weaken rival groups by using festering corpses with the premeditated purpose of causing disease. Nowadays, the unfortunate improvement of biowarfare is indubitably linked to our extensive collaborative work in exploring the use of microorganisms and their derivatives to create products and services that are beneficial to society. Natural defense barriers such as innate immunity and the immune specific adaptive response come to mind when thinking of bacteria and virus potentially being operated as tools for biological warfare. On the other hand, some bacterial toxins disrupt the immune cell functions and others do not trigger sufficient immune response, thus being not suitable for immunotherapy applications. As an alternative to these drawbacks, the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) develops specific nucleic acid or peptides for a variety of targets, including toxins. These aptamers are efficiently produced in vitro using enzymes or synthetical synthesis within days, low cost, and reproducibility. Oligonucleotide aptamers are a nanotechnological high spot because of their physicochemical characteristics such as resilience, pH responsiveness, and addressability at the nanoscale. Additionally, they induce no immunogenicity and can be modified by association with nanoparticles to increase their stability in biological environments. In this review, we explore the recent trends and perspectives on biosensor construction based on oligonucleotide aptamer-conjugated nanomaterials as effective biosecurity devices and their relevance to the development of risk-assessment protocols that could be used as intelligent barriers to provide continuous, cheap, and easy monitoring to prevent unexpected attacks.

The use of biological weapons from the past to the present: historical and legal aspects

The use of biological weapons from the past to the present: historical and legal aspects

A Model Compliance Regime for the Biological Weapons Convention

A Model Compliance Regime for the Biological Weapons Convention

International legal issues on biosafety: general overview

Objective: The legal concept and content of biosafety is discussed in the context of International Law. Biosafety issues are enumerated as part of a definition of concrete aspects related to responsibility of the states for using biological weapons. The latest trends in international law on ensuring the international biosafety are analysed. Legal issues concerning the definition of a just war are discussed in terms of international humanitarian law, the issues of fundamental principles in current international law (the principle of necessity governing the use of force, the right of states to self-defence in case of a bioattack, the principle of the peaceful settlement of international disputes, the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of states, arms control, and responsibility). The article presents an overview of new types of sovereignty such as biosovereignty, cyber sovereignty, and genomic sovereignty of states, along with the legal concept of international biocrime (genomocide), as well as classifications of bioterrorism, bioaggression, biopolitics and bioeconomics. Under current conditions, the importance of facilitating a broad interpretation of the concept of biosafety is emphasized.Methodology: The research uses general scientific and special cognitive techniques wherein legal analysis and synthesis, systemic, formal-legal, comparative-legal, historical-legal and dialectical methods are applied.Results: Despite the prohibition of biological weapons, urgent issues, such as establishing an international control mechanism for monitoring the non-proliferation of biological weapons, remain. Moreover, the Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), which entered into force in 1975, is yet to be fully adopted and / or ratified by all member states. Identifying certain types of biomedical research that should be banned according to generally accepted principles, the study concludes that the problem of banning these research activities has yet to be solved by some states. The concept of biosafety is interpreted broadly in terms of issues arising in relevant industrial processes. Biosecurity and biosafety are directly related to ensuring environmental security, marine security, food security and the security of outer space. Principles governing effective legal regulation for ensuring environmental, biological, and food safety are presented.

An Investigation of Search Algorithms for Aerial Reconnaissance of an Area Target

As drone technology becomes increasingly accessible in commercial and defense sectors, it is important to establish efficient ways of employing the technology to leverage its inherent advantages. In the context of a chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) attack, an unmanned aerial system (UAS) can provide an understanding of the area affected by contaminants in a faster and safer way than a manned reconnaissance mission. Commonly used deterministic paths provide comprehensive coverage but they can require a substantial amount of time to reach each sector within a search space. The recently proposed Lissajous search pattern provides easily tunable parameters that can be adjusted according to the search space and anticipated size of the target. This paper provides an evaluation of Lissajous patterns against canonical search patterns and investigates ways of maximizing their efficiency for various target sizes.

COVID-19 vaccination in the national security system of the Russian Federation: coordination of private and public interests

The subject. Having a proven positive social and economic effect, vaccination remains one of the most important institutions in the system of public safety. The development of this institution requires a rational legal support, considering not only current epidemic process, but also potential threats of bioterrorism and the development of biological weapons. In this light, effective legal regulation of vaccination measures, determination of their desirable forms and scope of the population coverage, as well as cooperation between citizens and the State in ensuring epidemiological safety become a matter of paramount importance.The purpose. The authors propose to discuss two issues: the limits of the possibility of introducing the institution of mandatory vaccination and the issue of legal assistance for the population to participate in vaccination programs in order to achieve the maximum possible coverage.The methodology. The article employs a comprehensive approach which combines formal interpretation and comparative analysis of legal acts and courts decisions with the insights from sociology, behavioral sciences and discourse analysis. The article focuses on the international and national standards of regulation of the vaccination by the means of public and private law in order to achieve herd immunity.Our analysis of the vaccination institute place in the legal system demonstrates that this institution can be included in a row of disciplinary, coercive and binding institutions for citizens prescribing mandatory participation. However, its coercive potential is relatively small and is limited to certain segments of the society that are of strategic importance for ensuring the epidemiological safety. The article posits that such groups remain in the legal field of exceptions, whereas in general, the vaccination institute presumes that the mandatory component is prescribed primarily to the state, not the citizens. And therefore, the citizen's participation in vaccination has the character of an individual rational choice.Conclusions. Our analysis shows that the law on vaccination should be focused on the facilitating socially desirable individual choice rather than binding norm prescription. In this area, the main tasks of legal regulation are establishment of an adequate system of accounting and distribution of individual risks, as well as fair compensation for possible damages during vaccinations. The second main direction of legal development is overcoming information asymmetry in the situation of individual decision-making in order to reduce the shortage of reliable data and to ensure effective communication within an expert community, the state and the person. We propose that this development contributes to the transformation of a purely legal norm on vaccination into a social and cultural one and strengthens the cooperative strategies of citizens in the fight against vaccine-controlled diseases.

Nanoparticles as Potential Agents of Chemical and Biological Weapons

The wide distribution in industry, medicine, agriculture, and other areas of human activity of nanoscale objects raise the question of the possibility of their dual use, which in this work means the use for deliberate mass destruction of people. The aim of the work is to consider nanoparticles as potential agents of chemical and biological weapons. Nanoparticles of any type have been shown to have biological activity. This is due to an increase in the surface activity of particles during the transition from microscale to nanoscale and their ability to penetrate the cell, especially cell nucleus. Being non-biological objects, interacting with cell receptors, distorting intracellular signaling pathways and affecting the genetic regulation of the cell, they can cause a variety of pathological effects (oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, etc.). Therefore, with the transition from microscales to nanoscales, essentially remaining chemical compounds, particles of non-toxic materials can transform into potential biological and chemical damaging agents. The existing possibilities of their mass use through the respiratory system, skin, gastrointestinal tract and through the introduction of injectable forms of drugs suggest that based on damaging agents of this type, weapons of mass destruction of a new type that are not subject to the Conventions on the Prohibition of Chemical and Biological Weapons can be developed. It is necessary to start developing methods for detecting nanoparticles and other nanoobjects in various environments surrounding a person, food and dosage forms

Multiple Streams, Open Windows, and yet No Solution

Abstract Article VII of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) requires states to provide emergency assistance in the case of a deliberate bioweapons attack on any state party to the convention. Since no operational mechanism defining how to request or provide such assistance has yet been established, the painful lessons of the 2014–2016 West African Ebola crisis returned this topic to the agenda of the BWC. This study uses multiple streams analysis to investigate the impact of the Ebola crisis on the considerations of Article VII. While it revived the three streams of the debate—problem, policy, and politics—and opened a policy window, nevertheless, no political entrepreneur was able to couple the streams to produce policy output. As this window of opportunity begins to close, the Covid-19 pandemic seems to be the next focusing event shaping the BWC discourse on emergency assistance.

The Myth of the “Poor Man's Atomic Bomb”: Knowledge, Method, and Ideology in the Study of Chemical, Biological, and Nuclear Weapons

AbstractChemical and biological weapons (CBWs) have often been characterized as a “poor man's atomic bomb”: a cheap and easy to acquire alternative to nuclear weapons that is particularly appealing to so-called Third World states. This idea is also reflected in Western government and expert estimates that have long exaggerated the spread of CBWs, especially among states in the Global South. In this article, I break down the ways in which the idea that the spread of CBWs is prevalent and that it primarily happens among states in the Global South has come to exist and persist. By dissecting an oft-cited dataset on CBW spread, I unravel frequently occurring methodological flaws—such as conceptual confusion, misinterpretation of sources, and a bias toward proliferation charges originating from the US government—that breed and sustain inflated estimates and faulty allegations. Subsequently, I show that a dominant cognitive framework that centers on the metaphorical use of the terms “proliferation” and “poor man's atomic bomb” primes analysts and policymakers to interpret the history and future of chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons as being characterized by inevitable spread, particularly among the non-Western “Other.” In conclusion, I offer ways to counter the orthodoxies of this ideology in teaching, research, and policy.

In silico selection of aptamers for bacterial toxins detection

The most commonly used toxins in biological warfare are staphylococcal enterotoxin B (3SEB), cholera toxin (1XTC), and botulinum toxin (3BTA). Uncovering novel strategies for identifying these toxins is paramount; therefore, aptamers are used for this purpose. Aptamers are single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotides selected via Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX) with high binding affinity and specificity against target molecules. However, SELEX in vitro is tedious; hence, adopting alternative in silico molecular docking approaches is necessary. We aimed to conduct molecular docking with accessible tools and obtain RNA aptamers. First, 4,820,095 sequences obtained from an initial library of 9.5 × 109 Python script sequences were used. The GraphClust program was used to create representative groups or clusters, and the DoGSiteScorer (https://proteins.plus/) was used to conduct binding site detection of the proteins: 5DO4 (thrombin), 3SEB, 1XTC, and 3BTA. rDock, HDock, and PatchDock were adopted, combining different docking program results (consensus scoring), to improve receptor–ligand prediction. An analysis of the poses and root mean square deviation (RMSD) was performed, and 468 structurally different aptamers were obtained. The DoGSiteScorer program predicted the binding site of each protein to direct the interaction with the aptamer. Candidate aptamers for 3SEB, 1XTC, and 3BTA were selected according to the pose value considering the closeness of the interaction with a lower mean of 45.923 Å, 45.854 Å, and 72.490 Å, respectively. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma

N-Heptadecane-Impregnated Wood as a Potential Material for Energy-Saving Buildings

Phase change materials (PCMs) are ideal for thermal management solutions in buildings. This is because they store and release thermal energy during melting and freezing. Spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Peterm.) sapwood was impregnated with n-heptadecane (100%) as a PCM. The decay-resistance properties and thermal energy storage (TES) characteristics of the n-heptadecane-impregnated wood were studied. The phase change properties of n-heptadecane (nHD)-impregnated wood were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), thermogravimetry (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. As confirmed by DSC analysis, nHD-impregnated wood demonstrated moderate performance in storing and releasing heat during the phase change process. Significant increases were observed in the 2800–3000 cm−1 and 1471 cm−1 peaks in FTIR spectra of wood samples impregnated with nHD, which showed C–H stretching in methyl and methylene groups and asymmetric deformation vibration of the paraffin methyl group (CH3–) and C–O stretch in lignin, respectively. It was observed that there was a change in the crystal structure of spruce wood samples after nHD impregnation. This study revealed that PCMs are resistant to wood-destroying fungi. The performance of nHD-impregnated spruce wood proves that it can be used as a thermal regulating building material to reduce energy consumption. In addition, it has been proven on a laboratory scale that the PCM used is highly resistant to biological attacks. However, large-scale pilot studies are still needed.

An Algorithm for Exchanging Target Asset Pairs using the Kidney Exchange Model

Since chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high yield explosive (CBRNE) attacks can cause catastrophic damage, it is important to detect and eliminate the means of attack at the origin. In surveillance operations, efficient allocation of friendly intelligence assets and enemy targets is critical for continuous and reliablemonitoring. In this research, we investigate a mathematical model for exchanging target–asset pairs when there are sudden changes in various operational environments. For this task, we refer to the kidney exchange model as a benchmark. In particular, the methods for constructing and solving the target–asset exchange problem in near realtime are presented. Additionally, we introduce the methodology and results for obtaining a feasible solution of the weapon target assignment problem using the exchange model. Our method can facilitate decisions in reconnaissance operations, especially when countless targets and assets are intricately intertwined in future battlefield scenarios.

Disease X Testing: The results of an international external quality assessment exercise

The United Nations Secretary-General Mechanism (UNSGM) for investigation of the alleged use of chemical and biological weapons is the only established international mechanism of this type under the UN. The UNGSM may launch an international investigation, relying on a roster of expert consultants, qualified experts, and analytical laboratories nominated by the member states. Under the framework of the UNSGM, we organized an external quality assurance exercise for nominated laboratories, named the Disease X Test, to improve the ability to discover and identify new pathogens that may cause possible epidemics and to determine their animal origin. The “what-if” scenario was to identify the etiological agent responsible for an outbreak that has tested negative for many known pathogens, including viruses and bacteria. Three microbes were added to the samples, Dabie bandavirus, Mammarenavirus, and Gemella spp., of which the last two have not been taxonomically named or published. The animal samples were from Rattus norvegicus, Marmota himalayana, New Zealand white rabbit, and the tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Of the 11 international laboratories that participated in this activity, six accurately identified pathogen X as a new Mammarenavirus, and five correctly identified the animal origin as R. norvegicus. These results showed that many laboratories under the UNSGM have the capacity and ability to identify a new virus during a possible international investigation of a suspected biological event. The technical details are discussed in this report.

Microbial forensics: A potential tool for investigation and response to bioterrorism

Bioterrorism is the intentional dissemination of bio-warfare agents in a population to cause illness or death. Microbial forensics plays an essential role in the investigation of bio-terror attacks. This is a new field of forensic science that is still in the early stages of growth and faces huge theoretical and ethical obstacles. There is a profound concern with current biotechnological developments that bacteria and viruses may be genetically engineered to modify them as biological weapons. Bioterrorism, like other nuclear weapons, has the potential to cause humanitarian disasters. This paper summarizes different detection methods of bio-warfare agents besides highlighting the various phases of bioterror attacks through the investigatory lens of microbial forensics.