Biotin Carboxyl Carrier Protein Domain Research Articles

The cryo-EM structure of trypanosome 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase provides mechanistic and dynamic insights into its enzymatic function

3-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC) catalyzes the two-step, biotin-dependent production of 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA, an essential intermediate in leucine catabolism. Given the critical metabolic role of MCC, deficiencies in this enzyme lead to organic aciduria, while its overexpression is linked to tumor development. MCC is a dodecameric enzyme composed of six copies of each α- and β-subunit. We present the cryo-EM structure of the endogenous MCC holoenzyme from Trypanosoma brucei in a non-filamentous state at 2.4Å resolution. Biotin is covalently bound to the biotin carboxyl carrier protein domain of α-subunits and positioned in a non-canonical pocket near the active site of neighboring β-subunit dimers. Moreover, flexibility of key residues at α-subunit interfaces and loops enables pivoting of α-subunit trimers to partly reduce the distance between α- and β-subunit active sites, required for MCC catalysis. Our results provide a structural framework to understand the enzymatic mechanism of eukaryotic MCCs and to assist drug discovery against trypanosome infections.

Genetic analysis of acyl-CoA carboxylases involved in lipid accumulation in Rhodococcus jostii RHA1.

In actinomycetes, the acyl-CoA carboxylases, including the so-called acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACCs), are biotin-dependent enzymes that exhibit broad substrate specificity and diverse domain and subunit arrangements. Bioinformatic analyses of the Rhodococcus jostii RHA1 genome found that this microorganism contains a vast arrange of putative acyl-CoA carboxylases domains and subunits. From the thirteen putative carboxyltransferase domains, only the carboxyltransferase subunit RO01202 and the carboxyltransferase domain present in the multidomain protein RO04222 are highly similar to well-known essential ACC subunits from other actinobacteria. Mutant strains in each of these genes showed that none of these enzymes is essential for R. jostii growth in rich or in minimal media with high nitrogen concentration, presumably because of their partial overlapping activities. A mutant strain in the ro04222 gene showed a decrease in triacylglycerol and mycolic acids accumulation in rich and minimal medium, highlighting the relevance of this multidomain ACC in the biosynthesis of these lipids. On the other hand, RO01202, a carboxyltransferase domain of a putative ACC complex, whose biotin carboxylase and biotin carboxyl carrier protein domain were not yet identified, was found to be essential for R. jostii growth only in minimal medium with low nitrogen concentration. The results of this study have identified a new component of the TAG-accumulating machinery in the oleaginous R. jostii RHA1. While non-essential for growth and TAG biosynthesis in RHA1, the activity of RO04222 significantly contributes to lipogenesis during single-cell oil production. Furthermore, this study highlights the high functional diversity of ACCs in actinobacteria, particularly regarding their essentiality under different environmental conditions. KEY POINTS: • R. jostii possess a remarkable heterogeneity in their acyl-carboxylase complexes. • RO04222 is a multidomain acetyl-CoA carboxylase involved in lipid accumulation. • RO01202 is an essential carboxyltransferase only at low nitrogen conditions.

Leishmania major biotin protein ligase forms a unique cross-handshake dimer.

Biotin protein ligase catalyses the post-translational modification of biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domains, a modification that is crucial for the function of several carboxylases. It is a two-step process that results in the covalent attachment of biotin to the ϵ-amino group of a conserved lysine of the BCCP domain of a carboxylase in an ATP-dependent manner. In Leishmania, three mitochondrial enzymes, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase and propionyl-CoA carboxylase, depend on biotinylation for activity. In view of the indispensable role of the biotinylating enzyme in the activation of these carboxylases, crystal structures of L. major biotin protein ligase complexed with biotin and with biotinyl-5'-AMP have been solved. L.major biotin protein ligase crystallizes as a unique dimer formed by cross-handshake interactions of the hinge region of the two monomers formed by partial unfolding of the C-terminal domain. Interestingly, the substrate (BCCP domain)-binding site of each monomer is occupied by its own C-terminal domain in the dimer structure. This was observed in all of the crystals that were obtained, suggesting a closed/inactive conformation of the enzyme. Size-exclusion chromatography studies carried out using high protein concentrations (0.5 mM) suggest the formation of a concentration-dependent dimer that exists in equilibrium with the monomer.

Chemical shift assignments of the biotin carboxyl carrier protein domain of L. major Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.

Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCCC) is a biotin dependent enzyme, that plays a crucial role in leucine metabolism. The enzyme comprises a biotin carboxylase (BC), a carboxyltransferase (CT), and a biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domain. MCCC is synthesized as an apo-protein, and is posttranslationally modified at a lysine residue, conserved in the biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domain. In order to understand the structure, function and interactions of L. major MCCC, we have expressed and characterized its domains. Here we report the complete chemical shift assignments of MCCC BCCP domain of L. major. Furthermore, we have used the assignments to generate a model of the same, using CS-Rosetta. We have also followed its chemical shift perturbations upon biotin modification. Changes were observed at the lysine 51 amide, that undergoes biotin modification, and a few others present in its immediate neighborhood.

Characterization of intra- and inter-species hybrid tetramers of pyruvate carboxylase: Biotin and the BCCP domain play a crucial role in determination of the kinetics and thermodynamics of catalysis

The formation, kinetics and thermodynamic activation parameters of hybrid tetramers of pyruvate carboxylase (PC) formed between wild-type Rhizobium etli pyruvate carboxylase (WTRePC) and mutant forms of this enzyme, as well as between Aspergillus nidulans PC and mutant forms of RePC have been characterized in a previous study. In this current work, we aim to extend the previous study by forming hybrid tetramers between WTRePC or chicken liver PC (CLPC) with single or double mutant RePCs. By forming hybrid tetramers between WTRePC with either K1119A or ΔBCCP RePC, the biotin moiety and BCCP (biotin carboxyl carrier protein) domain appear to play a crucial role in determination of thermodynamic activation parameters, especially the activation entropy, and the order of tetrameric structure. Using E218A:K1119A hybrid tetramers, an alternative pathway of biotin carboxylation occurred only in the absence of acetyl CoA. In this pathway, the biotin of the E218A subunits is carboxylated in the BC domain of the K1119A subunits, since the E218A mutation destroys the catalytic activity of the BC domain. Transfer of the carboxyl group to pyruvate could then occur in the CT domain of either E218A or K1119A. Part of the reduction of activity in hybrid tetramers of WTRePC and double mutant, E218A.K1119A could result from the loss of this pathway. Previously, D1018A mutant RePC homotetramers exhibited a 12-fold increase in the rate constant for catalysis in the absence of acetyl CoA. This was taken to indicate that inter-residue interactions involving D1018 inhibit the interconversion between the symmetrical and asymmetrical forms of the tetramer in the absence of acetyl CoA. The mutation, D1018A, in hybrid tetramers of WTRePC:D1018A.K1119A (D1018A.K1119A is a double mutant form of RePC) had no such effect on the rate constant, suggesting that in hybrid tetramers obligatory oscillation between asymmetrical and symmetrical conformers of the tetramer is not required to drive the catalytic cycle. Finally, K1119A or E218A RePC mutant can form hybrid tetramers with PC subunits from an evolutionarily distant species, chicken, that have stability characteristics that lie between those of the homotetramers of the two enzymes. This work provides insights into the how the PC tetramer functions to perform catalysis and is regulated by acetyl CoA. The ability to form hybrid tetrameric PCs composed of PC subunits from widely varying species that have a mixture of characteristics of the two source enzymes may also provide ways of developing novel PCs for biotechnological purposes.

Investigating Carrier Domain Positioning During Catalytic Turnover in Pyruvate Carboxylase

A central debate in protein biochemistry focuses on the mechanism by which ligand binding correlates with protein conformational change. Two primary hypotheses describe this process: the induced‐fit hypothesis states that ligand binding induces a conformational change in the protein, while the conformational ensembles hypothesis states that the protein pre‐exists in multiple conformational states, with ligand binding shifting the equilibrium towards a preferred conformation. Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) is a multi‐domain, swinging‐arm enzyme that coordinates reactions between two remote active sites and serves as a structurally and biophysically accessible paradigm to study the relationship between ligand binding and protein conformational change. PC catalyzes the ATP‐dependent carboxylation of pyruvate to oxaloacetate, using bicarbonate as the carboxyl group donor. The biotin cofactor on the biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domain is carboxylated via a MgATP‐dependent reaction in the biotin carboxylase (BC) domain. The BCCP domain then translocates to the carboxyltransferase (CT) domain on an opposing subunit, where the carboxyl group is transferred from the biotin cofactor to pyruvate, generating oxaloacetate.In order to better understand the mechanism of carrier domain translocation, the equilibrium positioning of the BCCP domain was directly observed using site‐specific cross‐linking to trap the BCCP domain in the putative exo‐binding site on the opposing subunit. This approach permits a detailed analysis of BCCP domain positioning in response to various substrates and allosteric effectors. Samples were first analyzed using SDS‐PAGE and densitometry to measure BCCP cross‐linked dimers as reporters for equilibrium positioning changes. Given that BCCP cross‐linking inactivates the enzyme, rates of inactivation were measured to assess changes in BCCP domain positioning in the presence of substrates and effectors. Finally, intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence changes were measured on fast timescales to more accurately determine the effect of ligands on the rates of BCCP domain repositioning. These studies reveal that substrates and effectors shift the BCCP domain positioning from one domain to another and offer the first evidence that the carrier domain exists in a dynamic equilibrium between active sites.Support or Funding InformationThis work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant GM117540.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

A distinct holoenzyme organization for two-subunit pyruvate carboxylase.

Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) has important roles in metabolism and is crucial for virulence for some pathogenic bacteria. PC contains biotin carboxylase (BC), carboxyltransferase (CT) and biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) components. It is a single-chain enzyme in eukaryotes and most bacteria, and functions as a 500 kD homo-tetramer. In contrast, PC is a two-subunit enzyme in a collection of Gram-negative bacteria, with the α subunit containing the BC and the β subunit the CT and BCCP domains, and it is believed that the holoenzyme has α4β4 stoichiometry. We report here the crystal structures of a two-subunit PC from Methylobacillus flagellatus. Surprisingly, our structures reveal an α2β4 stoichiometry, and the overall architecture of the holoenzyme is strikingly different from that of the homo-tetrameric PCs. Biochemical and mutagenesis studies confirm the stoichiometry and other structural observations. Our functional studies in Pseudomonas aeruginosa show that its two-subunit PC is important for colony morphogenesis.

Crystal structure of the 500-kDa yeast acetyl-CoA carboxylase holoenzyme dimer.

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) has crucial roles in fatty acid metabolism and is an attractive target for drug discovery against diabetes, cancer and other diseases1–6. Saccharomyces cerevisiae ACC (ScACC) is crucial for the production of very-long-chain fatty acids and the maintenance of the nuclear envelope7,8. ACC contains biotin carboxylase (BC) and carboxyltransferase (CT) activities, and its biotin is linked covalently to the biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP). Most eukaryotic ACCs are 250 kD, multi-domain enzymes and function as homo-dimers and higher oligomers. They contain a unique, 80 kD central region that shares no homology with other proteins. While the structures of the BC, CT and BCCP domains and other biotin-dependent carboxylase holoenzymes are known1,9–14, currently there is no structural information on the ACC holoenzyme. Here we report the crystal structure of the full-length, 500 kD holoenzyme dimer of ScACC. The structure is strikingly different from those of the other biotin-dependent carboxylases. The central region contains five domains and is important for positioning the BC and CT domains for catalysis. The structure unexpectedly reveals a dimer of the BC domain and extensive conformational differences compared to the structure of BC domain alone, which is a monomer. These structural changes explain why the BC domain alone is catalytically inactive and define the molecular mechanism for the inhibition of eukaryotic ACC by the natural product soraphen A15,16 and by phosphorylation of a Ser residue just prior to the BC domain core in mammalian ACC. The BC and CT active sites are separated by 80 Å, and the entire BCCP domain must translocate during catalysis.

Obesity Drives Th17 Cell Differentiation by Inducing the Lipid Metabolic Kinase, ACC1

Chronic inflammation due to obesity contributes to the development of metabolic diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Reciprocal interactions between metabolic systems and immune cells have pivotal roles in the pathogenesis of obesity-associated diseases, although the mechanisms regulating obesity-associated inflammatory diseases are still unclear. In the present study, we performed transcriptional profiling of memory phenotype CD4 T cells in high-fat-fed mice and identified acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1, the gene product of Acaca) as an essential regulator of Th17 cell differentiation in vitro and of the pathogenicity of Th17 cells in vivo. ACC1 modulates the DNA binding of RORγt to target genes in differentiating Th17 cells. In addition, we found a strong correlation between IL-17A-producing CD45RO(+)CD4 T cells and the expression of ACACA in obese subjects. Thus, ACC1 confers the appropriate function of RORγt through fatty acid synthesis and regulates the obesity-related pathology of Th17 cells.

The Role of Yeast Urea Amidolyase in Patients with Suppressed Immune Systems (LB105)

According to Rice University, 70% of people are affected by the infectious fungus Candida albicans. The immune system uses T and B cells to stop pathogens. People with suppressed immune systems, such as children with transplants, AIDs or cancer patients, lack functional T and B cells, so they rely on macrophages to destroy Candida. Candida can kill and exit macrophages due to an enzyme: urea amidolyase (UAL). While in the macrophage, Candida goes through a morphological switch from a sphere to a structure with hyphae due to an environment change. UAL converts urea to ammonia and CO2, creating an environment for hyphae to form, bursting the macrophage. The Greenfield SMART (Students Modeling A Research Topic) Team used 3D printing technology to model the four domains of UAL. The biotin carboxylase (BC) domain uses energy from ATP cleavage to attach CO2 to the swinging arm portion, or biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domain. The BCCP domain swings across UAL, attaching CO2 to urea forming allophanate in the carboxyl transferase (CT) domain. Allophanate moves to the allophanate hydrolase (AH) domain, which hydrolyzes the allophanate into CO2 and ammonia. Increases in CO2 and ammonia cause hyphae to form, destroying macrophages and allowing Candida to spread. Since humans lack UAL, researchers could block UAL’s active sites to prevent Candida’s macrophage‐killing shape change, thus preventing systemic candidiasis without damaging human cells.Grant Funding Source: Supported by a grant from NIH‐CTSA.

Insights into Molecular Assembly of ACCase Heteromeric Complex in Chlorella variabilis—A Homology Modelling, Docking and Molecular Dynamic Simulation Study

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), a biotin-dependent enzyme that catalyses the first committed step of fatty acid biosynthesis, is considered as a potential target for improving lipid accumulation in oleaginous feedstocks, including microalgae. ACCase is composed of three distinct conserved domains, and understanding the structural details of each catalytic domain assumes great significance to gain insights into the molecular basis of the complex formation and mechanism of biotin transport. In the absence of a crystal structure for any single heteromeric ACCase till date, here we report the first heteromeric association model of ACCase from an oleaginous green microalga, Chlorella variabilis, using a combination of homology modelling, docking and molecular dynamic simulations. The binding site of the docked biotin carboxylase (BC) and carboxyltransferase (CT) were predicted to be contiguous but distinct in biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) molecule. Simulation studies revealed considerable flexibility for the BC and CT domains in the BCCP-bound forms, thus indicating the adaptive behaviour of BCCP. Further, principal component analysis revealed that in the presence of BCCP, the BC and CT domains exhibited an open-state conformation via the outward clockwise rotation of the binding helices. These conformational changes might be responsible for binding of BCCP domain and its translocation to the respective active sites. Various rearrangements of inter-domain hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) contributed to conformational changes in the structures. H-bond interactions between the interacting residue pairs involving Glu201BCCP/Arg255BC and Asp224BCCP/Gln228CT were found to be essential for the intermolecular assembly. The present findings are consistent with previous biochemical studies.

Structural classification of biotin carboxyl carrier proteins

We gathered primary and tertiary structures of acyl-CoA carboxylases from public databases, and established that members of their biotin carboxylase (BC) and biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domains occur in one family each and that members of their carboxyl transferase (CT) domains occur in two families. Protein families have members similar in primary and tertiary structure that probably have descended from the same protein ancestor. The BCCP domains complexed with biotin in acyl and acyl-CoA carboxylases transfer bicarbonate ions from BC domains to CT domains, enabling the latter to carboxylate acyl and acyl-CoA moieties. We separated the BCCP domains into four subfamilies based on more subtle primary structure differences. Members of different BCCP subfamilies often are produced by different types of organisms and are associated with different carboxylases.

Crystal Structure of Urea Carboxylase Provides Insights into the Carboxyltransfer Reaction

Urea carboxylase (UC) is conserved in many bacteria, algae, and fungi and catalyzes the conversion of urea to allophanate, an essential step in the utilization of urea as a nitrogen source in these organisms. UC belongs to the biotin-dependent carboxylase superfamily and shares the biotin carboxylase (BC) and biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domains with these other enzymes, but its carboxyltransferase (CT) domain is distinct. Currently, there is no information on the molecular basis of catalysis by UC. We report here the crystal structure of the Kluyveromyces lactis UC and biochemical studies to assess the structural information. Structural and sequence analyses indicate the CT domain of UC belongs to a large family of proteins with diverse functions, including the Bacillus subtilis KipA-KipI complex, which has important functions in sporulation regulation. A structure of the KipA-KipI complex is not currently available, and our structure provides a framework to understand the function of this complex. Most interestingly, in the structure the CT domain interacts with the BCCP domain, with biotin and a urea molecule bound at its active site. This structural information and our follow-up biochemical experiments provided molecular insights into the UC carboxyltransfer reaction. Several structural elements important for the UC carboxyltransfer reaction are found in other biotin-dependent carboxylases and might be conserved within this family, and our data could shed light on the mechanism of catalysis of these enzymes.

Selectivity in Post-translational Biotin Addition to Five Human Carboxylases

Human holocarboxylase synthetase (HCS) catalyzes linkage of the vitamin biotin to the biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domain of five biotin-dependent carboxylases. In the two-step reaction, the activated intermediate, bio-5'-AMP, is first synthesized from biotin and ATP, followed by covalent linkage of the biotin moiety to a specific lysine residue of each carboxylase BCCP domain. Selectivity in HCS-catalyzed biotinylation to the carboxylases was investigated in single turnover stopped flow and quench flow measurements of biotin transfer to the minimal biotin acceptor BCCP fragments of the carboxylases. The results demonstrate that biotinylation of the BCCP fragments of the mitochondrial carboxylases propionyl-CoA carboxylase, pyruvate carboxylase, and methylcrotonoyl-CoA carboxylase is fast and limited by the bimolecular association rate of the enzyme with substrate. By contrast, biotinylation of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 and 2 (ACC1 and ACC2) fragments, both of which are accessible to HCS in the cytoplasm, is slow and displays a hyperbolic dependence on substrate concentration. The correlation between HCS accessibility to biotin acceptor substrates and the kinetics of biotinylation suggests that mitochondrial carboxylase sequences evolved to produce fast association rates with HCS in order to ensure biotinylation prior to mitochondrial import. In addition, the results are consistent with a role for HCS specificity in dictating biotin distribution among carboxylases.

Interaction between the Biotin Carboxyl Carrier Domain and the Biotin Carboxylase Domain in Pyruvate Carboxylase from Rhizobium etli

Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) catalyzes the ATP-dependent carboxylation of pyruvate to oxaloacetate, an important anaplerotic reaction in mammalian tissues. To effect catalysis, the tethered biotin of PC must gain access to active sites in both the biotin carboxylase domain and the carboxyl transferase domain. Previous studies have demonstrated that a mutation of threonine 882 to alanine in PC from Rhizobium etli renders the carboxyl transferase domain inactive and favors the positioning of biotin in the biotin carboxylase domain. We report the 2.4 Å resolution X-ray crystal structure of the Rhizobium etli PC T882A mutant which reveals the first high-resolution description of the domain interaction between the biotin carboxyl carrier protein domain and the biotin carboxylase domain. The overall quaternary arrangement of Rhizobium etli PC remains highly asymmetrical and is independent of the presence of allosteric activator. While biotin is observed in the biotin carboxylase domain, its access to the active site is precluded by the interaction between Arg353 and Glu248, revealing a mechanism for regulating carboxybiotin access to the BC domain active site. The binding location for the biotin carboxyl carrier protein domain demonstrates that tethered biotin cannot bind in the biotin carboxylase domain active site in the same orientation as free biotin, helping to explain the difference in catalysis observed between tethered biotin and free biotin substrates in biotin carboxylase enzymes. Electron density located in the biotin carboxylase domain active site is assigned to phosphonoacetate, offering a probable location for the putative carboxyphosphate intermediate formed during biotin carboxylation. The insights gained from the T882A Rhizobium etli PC crystal structure provide a new series of catalytic snapshots in PC and offer a revised perspective on catalysis in the biotin-dependent enzyme family.

Cryo-EM Analysis Reveals New Insights into the Mechanism of Action of Pyruvate Carboxylase

Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) is a conserved multifunctional enzyme linked to important metabolic diseases. PC homotetramer is arranged in two layers with two opposing monomers per layer. Cryo-EM explores the conformational variability of PC in the presence of different substrates. The results demonstrate that the biotin-carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domain localizes near the biotin carboxylase (BC) domain of its own monomer and travels to the carboxyltransferase (CT) domain of the opposite monomer. All density maps show noticeable conformational differences between layers, mainly for the BCCP and BC domains. This asymmetry may be indicative of a coordination mechanism where monomers from different layers catalyze the BC and CT reactions consecutively. A conformational change of the PC tetramerization (PT) domain suggests a new functional role in communication. A long-range communication pathway between subunits in different layers, via interacting PT-PT and BC-BC domains, may be responsible for the cooperativity of PC from Staphylococcus aureus.

Crystal structure of the α6β6 holoenzyme of propionyl-coenzyme A carboxylase

Propionyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (PCC), a mitochondrial biotin-dependent enzyme, is essential for the catabolism of the amino acids Thr, Val, Ile and Met, cholesterol, and fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms. Deficiencies of PCC activity in humans are linked to the disease propionic acidemia (PA), an autosomal recessive disorder that can be fatal in infants 1–4. The holoenzyme of PCC is an α6β6 dodecamer, with a molecular weight of 750 kD. The α subunit contains the biotin carboxylase (BC) and biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) domains, while the β subunit supplies the carboxyltransferase (CT) activity. Here we report the crystal structure at 3.2 Å resolution of a bacterial PCC α6β6 holoenzyme as well as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) reconstructionat 15 Å resolution demonstrating a similar structure for human PCC. The structure defines the overall architecture of PCC and reveals unexpectedly that the α subunits are arranged as monomers in the holoenzyme, decorating a central β6 hexamer. A hitherto unrecognized domain in the α subunit, formed by residues between the BC and BCCP domains, is crucial for interactions with the β subunit. We have named it the BT domain. The structure reveals for the first time the relative positions of the BC and CT active sites in the holoenzyme. They are separated by approximately 55 Å, indicating that the entire BCCP domain must translocate during catalysis. The BCCP domain is located in the active site of the β subunit in the current structure, providing insight for its involvement in the CT reaction. The structural information establishes a molecular basis for understanding the large collection of disease-causing mutations in PCC, and also has important relevance for the holoenzymes of other biotin-dependent carboxylases, including 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase (MCC) 5–7 and eukaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) 8,9.

My favorite pyruvate carboxylase

Having completed a PhD in molecular and cellular biology in mammalian reproduction at the University of Sydney, my first postdoctoral appointment began early in 1965 in the laboratory of Sir Hans Krebs at Oxford University where I had the pleasure of working with Dr Eric Newsholme on the regulation of gluconeogenesis and glycolysis during fetal development. My introduction to Pyruvate Carboxylase (PC) came early in 1966 when Michael Scrutton arrived back in Oxford to submit his D.Phil. thesis after spending a remarkably productive time working on PC in the laboratory of its discoverer, Professor Merton Utter, at Western Reserve University Medical School, Cleveland, Ohio. Not surprisingly, Michael bubbled with infectious enthusiasm about PC, and presented an outstanding seminar to the Department. In late 1966 I moved to Professor Utter’s group and had an invaluable and enjoyable experience broadening my skills and filling some of the many gaps in my knowledge, particularly in biophysical techniques. The co-discoverer of PC, Professor Bruce Keech, returned to Cleveland in 1968 on sabbatical leave from the University of Adelaide, Australia, and we soon established an effective and agreeable collaboration. This collaboration was renewed in late 1969 when I arrived in Adelaide, where I secured a Faculty position in 1970, and continued until Bruce retired in 1983.

I'm a PC (Pyruvate Carboxylase)…and diabetes was not my idea!

NIH estimates that 23 million Americans have diabetes, and 6.2 million are undiagnosed. If untreated, diabetes can cause complications, including heart disease and neuropathy. Type two diabetes patients cannot regulate glucose due to insulin resistance or deficiency. Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) plays an important role in insulin release from pancreatic β cells. Abnormal PC activity has been correlated with type two diabetes. PC is a dimer of dimers, each monomer a single chain with four domains: N‐terminal biotin carboxylase (BC), central carboxyltransferase (CT), C‐terminal biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP), and allosteric domains. PC catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetate (OAA). The process begins when biotin is carboxylated at the BC active site. The BCCP domain transfers the carboxybiotin to an active site in the CT domain. OAA is formed at the CT domain by adding a carboxyl group to pyruvate. Researchers concluded that the BCCP domain swings between active sites on opposite chains, instead of sites on the same chain. The Brown Deer SMART Team (Students Modeling A Research Topic), in collaboration with MSOE, built a model of PC using 3D printing technology illustrating this movement of the BCCP domain. Current research is focused on increasing PC activity through controlling a binding site in the allosteric domain, which may increase insulin production.Supported by a grant from NIH‐NCRR‐SEPA.

Structural insights on pathogenic effects of novel mutations causing pyruvate carboxylase deficiency

Pyruvate carboxylase (PC), a key enzyme for gluconeogenesis and anaplerotic pathways, consists of four domains, namely, biotin carboxylase (BC), carboxyltransferase (CT), pyruvate carboxylase tetramerization (PT), and biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP). PC deficiency is a rare metabolic disorder inherited in an autosomal recessive way. The most severe form (form B) is characterized by neonatal lethal lactic acidosis, whereas patients with form A suffer chronic lactic acidosis with psychomotor retardation. Diagnosis of PC deficiency relies on enzymatic assay and identification of the PC gene mutations. To date, six mutations of the PC gene have been identified. We report nine novel mutations of the PC gene, in five unrelated patients: three being affected with form B, and the others with form A. Three of them were frameshift mutations predicted to introduce a premature termination codon, the remaining ones being five nucleotide substitutions and one in frame deletion. Impact of these mutations on mRNA was assessed by RT-PCR. Evidence for a deleterious effect of the missense mutations was achieved using protein alignments and three-dimensional structural prediction, thanks to our modeling of the human PC structure. Altogether, our data and those previously reported indicate that form B is consistently associated with at least one truncating mutation, mostly lying in CT (C-terminal part) or BCCP domains, whereas form A always results from association of two missense mutations located in BC or CT (N-terminal part) domains. Finally, although most PC mutations are suggested to interfere with biotin metabolism, none of the PC-deficient patients was biotin-responsive.