Biosphere Reserve Research Articles

Comparing local ecological knowledge with camera trap data to study mammal occurrence in anthropogenic landscapes of the Garden Route Biosphere Reserve

AbstractAccurate information on wildlife occurrence in anthropogenic landscapes is essential to develop effective conservation measures. Monitoring multiple mammal species in heterogeneous landscapes can be challenging because of the diversity of land‐uses and species behaviors. Therefore, different monitoring methods are better adapted to different contexts. We compared data obtained from camera traps with data gathered through an online survey to document the presence of mammal species in mosaic landscapes of the Garden Route Biosphere Reserve in South Africa. The survey detected the same 15 species as the camera traps as well as the additional common duiker. Both methods effectively detected most large mammal species, whereas results were less consistent for smaller species and carnivores. Combining the two methods enabled us to produce more robust estimates of species absence and confirm species presence reported by survey respondents. In less disturbed areas, respondents with good ecological knowledge were effective at monitoring mammal species, while extending the spatial coverage of the study. Bearing in mind the limitations of each method, camera traps and an online survey could complement each other if combined. Together, they can provide a more comprehensive understanding of mammal communities in anthropogenic landscapes, increasing both spatial coverage and the number of species sightings.

Understanding how forest ecosystem services are affected by conservation practices and differences in elevation: A study in the Arasbaran biosphere reserve, Iran

Studies addressing how different forest management methods affect the ecosystem services provided by forests in different geographical areas are essential. The objective of this study was to investigate how regulating and supporting services are affected by conservation management and differences in elevation. This was achieved by comparing several ecosystem indicators between the protected and unprotected areas.The forests under study were divided into two elevation ranges (1000–1500 and 1500–2000 m above sea level), and 66 sample plots (area 300 m2) were established in each area. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the trees were recorded, and soil and litter samples were obtained in all sample plots. Increment cores were also obtained from the main tree species in the area. In addition, regulating services (regulation of CO2, water and soil) and supporting services (nutrient cycling in soil, and above-ground net primary production) were also evaluated. All of the indicators studied in the regulating services section, except annual carbon sequestration by the trees and the soil loss, in the protected were more than in the unprotected area. No significant differences between the two regions were observed regarding annual carbon sequestration and soil regulation indicators. Regarding the supporting services indicators, total nitrogen, assimilable potassium and average trunk volume of the trees were higher in the protected than in the unprotected area; the opposite was true for the total phosphorus index. The results suggest positive effects of conservation management on regulating and supporting services in the protected area of the Arasbaran forests.The findings of the study indicate that conservation management practices have a positive impact on both regulating and supporting services within the protected area of the Arasbaran forests. This suggests that the implementation of conservation measures in this region has resulted in beneficial outcomes for the ecosystem services provided by the forests. The results highlight the importance of protecting and managing forest areas to enhance their ability to regulate CO2, water, and soil, as well as support nutrient cycling and above-ground net primary production.These outcomes highlight the crucial role of conservation efforts in maintaining and enhancing the overall health and functioning of the Arasbaran forests. It indicates that protective management is essential for promoting key ecosystem services. The study also underscores the importance of considering factors such as altitude and habitat conditions when formulating forest management strategies or plans.

Arsenic and mercury exposure in different insect trophic guilds from mercury mining areas in Mexico.

The exposure to arsenic and mercury in various insect trophic guilds from two mercury mining sites in Mexico was assessed. The two study sites were La Laja (LL) and La Soledad (LS) mines. Additionally, a reference site (LSR) was evaluated for LS. The terrestrial ecosystem was studied at LL, whereas both the terrestrial ecosystem and a stream called El Cedral (EC) were assessed at LS. The study sites are situated in the Biosphere Reserve Sierra Gorda (BRSG). Mercury vapor concentrations were measured with a portable analyzer, and concentrations of arsenic and mercury in environmental and biological samples were determined through atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Both pollutants were detected in all terrestrial ecosystem components (soil, air, leaves, flowers, and insects) from the two mines. The insect trophic guilds exposed included pollinivores, rhizophages, predators, coprophages, and necrophages. In LS, insects accumulated arsenic at levels 29 to 80 times higher than those found in specimens from LSR, and 10 to 46 times higher than those from LL. Similarly, mercury exposure in LS was 13 to 62 times higher than LSR, and 15 to 54 times higher than in LL. The analysis of insect exposure routes indicated potential exposure through air, soil, leaves, flowers, animal prey, carrion, and excrement. Water and sediment from EC exhibited high levels of arsenic and mercury compared to reference values, and predatory aquatic insects were exposed to both pollutants. In conclusion, insects from mercury mining sites in the BRSG are at risk.

Between Global Expectations for Sustainability and Local Feasibility—A Comparative Analysis of Three Biosphere Reserves in Germany and France

As “learning places for sustainable development”, UNESCO biosphere reserves are specifically dedicated to sustainability. The Lima Action Plan of 2016 resolved to position the biosphere reserves more prominently as model regions in order to fulfill UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, the question remains how and to what extent this resolution has been implemented and the ideal of sustainability filled with life at the local level. Based on surveys of municipal actors and fifteen in-depth interviews with political decision-makers, this article compares three adjacent Western European biosphere reserves, the Palatinate Forest, Northern Vosges, and Bliesgau, with regard to local initiatives aimed at fulfilling the overall task of sustainable development. The results show—besides generalized statements on the relevance of sustainability—that municipal politics is only, to a limited extent, guided by the requirements of concrete SDGs. Nevertheless, many of the measures implemented do ultimately reflect these goals. Along with specific ecological and climatic projects, these comprise future-oriented settlement policies and educational activities undertaken by the biosphere reserves and their municipalities. In this context, improved communication with local councils and residents might well lead to more effectively structured implementation of SDGs.

Integrated fire management in a tropical biosphere reserve: Achievements and challenges

Wildfires are among the most critical threats to tropical rainforests. In the Selva El Ocote Biosphere Reserve in the Mexican state of Chiapas, vast rainforest areas suffered destruction by fires in 1998 and 2003. However, there have been no more widespread fires, and previously burnt areas have been recovering. The present study analyses the integrated fire management processes implemented in the reserve. It includes 19 expert interviews and a survey applied to 274 inhabitants of local communities. It argues that the successful prevention of further adverse wildfire events is related to a fire management approach, which emphasizes cultural and physical fire prevention and incorporates strong participation by local communities. The communities have established internal agreements to mitigate wildfire risk. Thus, the reserve might serve as an example of how integrated and cultural fire management can be applied in practice. However, these achievements face challenges, mainly due to budget cuts, changing governmental priorities, and the crisis of the rule of law in Mexico. An event that particularly impacted fire management practices in the area in recent years was the implementation of the federal government's Sembrando Vida (“Planting Life”) program. First, it led to deforestation and the provocation of wildfires but afterwards it seems to have induced the abandonment of agricultural burning by a considerable percentage of local farmers.

Evaluation of the Floristic, Phytosociological and Geographic Characteristics of the Understorey of an Ex-plantation of Guarrea cedrata (A Chev.) in the Yangambi DR. Congo

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the floristic diversity, phytosociological spectra and geographical characteristics of the understorey of the old abandoned plantation of the Yangambi Biosphere Reserve, using the Martineau and Blanc-étoc silvicultural methods. This was done to fill gaps in our knowledge of the latter. The experimental setup consisted of 50*50 m (Martineau method, 2023) and 50*50 m (Blanc-étoc, 2023). All undergrowth species with a diameter of 5.0 cm or greater were inventoried using Letouzey's [1] established technique. Technical abbreviations were clearly explained upon first use. The websites www.tropicos.org and www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa and the catalogue-flora of vascular plants in the Kisangani and Tshopo districts of the DR Congo were consulted to determine the phytosociological and geographical spectrum. After analysis, it is apparent that the Strombosio-Parinarietea species carry more significance than other varieties found in Martineau and Musanga-Terminalietea in Blanc-étoc. Compared to the other vegetation types studied, our observations show that the endemic species from Guinea and Congo are more abundant in the understorey. Consequently, the study shows a complete geographical convergence, while phytosociologically there is a complete divergence between the two silvicultural methods observed.

Learning through Place-Based Implementation of the UNESCO MAB Program in South Africa’s Oldest Biosphere Reserve: A Case Study of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve

UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) is implemented through a world network of biosphere reserves, which offer a holistic people-centered landscape-level conservation approach. When successfully implemented the program enhances social–ecological system sustainability and resilience. However, there remains a research gap in understanding and collating lessons from individual sites for the benefit of the program globally. We assess MAB implementation in South Africa’s oldest biosphere reserve, the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve (KBR; est. 1998). Using semi-structured in-depth interviews with directors and the coordinator, complemented by document analysis, we explore the governance and implementation learnings of the KBR as it has evolved. The KBR program implementation is guided by global necessity, but driven by the local context, which for the KBR translates to a non-profit organization cooperative governance model. The site faces a perceived lack of government financial support and awareness of the ‘biosphere reserve’ concept. Despite these challenges, successes have emerged in the formation of local partnerships to fulfil critical roles in socio-economic development and biodiversity conservation. The learnings from KBR, as it strives to become a model site for sustainability, are useful for other sites similarly operationalizing an international designation for local conditions.

Indicators sandflies and environment associated to spatial landscaping change in Chocó Biosphere Reserve UNESCO.

Sandflies are vector insects associated with terrestrial forest ecosystems; in the Ecuadorian Andes, they participate in the transmission of human cutaneous leishmaniasis. This geographical area represents an opportunity to evaluate the role of sandflies as bioindicators of the degree of intervention of tropical humid forest ecosystems (THF) associated with changes in the ecology of the local landscape. CDC-light traps were used for collecting adult sandflies in February 2020 in a humid tropical forest within the Chocó Biosphere Reserve. All species were identified using morphological keys. Analysis data about abundance, richness, species accumulation, diversity index, species composition communities, species sex proportion, spatial sandflies environmental, Renyi's Diversity Profile were performed to compare six spatial habitats in Mashpi locality, Ecuador. Sandflies were collected (n-1435); the main species are represented by Trichophoromyia reburra, Nyssomyia trapidoi, Psathyromyia aclydifera, Psychodopygus panamensis and Lutzomyia hartmanni. Only Th. reburra is associated with not intervened forest, while the other three species are associated with intervened forest within Mashpi in the Choco Biosphere Reserve. The secondary forest has major sandflies' richness, while the primary forest exhibits major abundance. Th. reburra is a sandfly restricted to the Andean Forest and is a bioindicator of the high environmental health quality of the forest, while Ny. trapidoi and Pa. aclydifera are bioindicators of environmental disturbances in the forest. Additionally, Ps. panamensis, Lu. hartmanni and Ny. trapidoi are bioindicators of human impact and the risk of leishmaniasis.

Carbon neutrality of an island with 100% renewable energy production and forest as carbon sinks: El Hierro (Canary Islands) a pilot for Europe

AbstractThe island of El Hierro is the smallest and youngest island in the Canary archipelago. It has been recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve since 2000, and it has a population of approximately 10,000 inhabitants. The aim of this study was to determine the amount of CO2 emissions absorbed by the forest stands of the island of El Hierro and compare it to the emissions generated by the population. It is noteworthy that there is a hydro‐wind energy production project on the island that has significantly minimized the emissions linked to energy production. In short, El Hierro's forest stands are capable of capturing 46,785 tons of CO2 annually, while emissions associated with electricity production and emissions linked to road mobility are below the island's carbon sequestration capacity since the Gorona del Viento renewable energy project was built. By working on investment in renewable energies to produce energy and changing mobility with the use of electric vehicles, a small island like El Hierro can adapt to ecological transition by the year 2040. This is a goal set by the government to drastically reduce emissions in the Canary Islands.

Wetland landscapes in the Southern Maya Lowlands (Naachtun, Guatemala) from the ancient agroecosystems to the tropical biosphere reserve: Ecology, exploitation and management of water and soil resources, and heritage legacy

AbstractIn the Biosphere Reserve of the Maya Lowlands, the large‐scale characterisation of the current wetlands ecology and the exploitation and management of their natural resources by the ancient Maya is severely constrained by the forest. This paper presents an integrated geomatic, geoarchaeological and ecological approach, developed to overcome this obstacle in the microregion of the Naachtun Maya city. It is based on the analysis of LiDAR, and field and laboratory data. This approach has revealed the mosaic of current ecological conditions of the wetlands, thanks to the characterisation and spatial modelling of the landforms, hydrology, vegetation and soil cover. It has enabled the characterisation of numerous hydraulic and agricultural structures: 70 large reservoirs, raised fields (the largest over 1.5 km²), canals and ditches (with a cumulative length of over 300 km) and dikes. Eight morphological types of hybrid structures—hydraulic and agricultural—are described. These constructions have enabled the intensive exploitation of water and soil resources, their management and the resulting environmental risks. This study has shown that the agroecosystems of lowland areas were created as early as ~1500 B.C.E. and evolved in a polyphasic way, until a phase of radical decline around 1000 C.E. This study has made it possible to characterise the legacy of the Maya Early Anthropocene on current wetlands, as well as their important natural and cultural heritage.

Detection of Microplastics and Heavy Metals in Famous Edible Molluscs in Can Gio Biosphere Reserve of Vietnam

Can Gio, designated in 2000, is the first Biosphere Reserve of Vietnam. In recent years, local agriculture, tourism, households, nearby industrial zones, and maritime transport have released substances into rivers flowing through Can Gio Mangrove to the East Sea and transported into creatures. This study aims to investigate microplastics and heavy metals in the famous seafood of Can Gio. A Raman microscope was used to identify microplastics from the tissue of oysters, grease snails, and clams after enzymatic treatment with trypsin. Heavy metals were quantified with ICP-MS after acidic treatment. As a result, microplastics were found in almost all samples, even up to 10 in a random individual of bivalve. Fibers dominated, especially from 30 to 150 µm long. The metal with the highest content was zinc, followed by copper, especially in oysters. Non-essential metals were also present in the soft tissue in the order As > Pb > Cd. The accumulation of metals in Can Gio’s molluscs was generally lower than in other regions and still in the allowed range for consumption of Vietnamese Standard. Although there have not been any Vietnamese regulations on the permissible level of microplastics for consumption, regular seafood intake will increase the risk of chronic poisoning and unknown disorders caused by the accumulation of microplastics and heavy metals.

Management of World Biosphere Reserves in Vietnam: Case Study at Cu Lao Cham - Hoi An Biosphere Reserve

By 2024, Vietnam has 11 Biosphere Reserves recognized by UNESCO, ranking second in Southeast Asia in terms of the number of Biosphere Reserves. However, the reception and utilization of the Biosphere Reserve designation in provinces and at the national level remain passive. In addition to maintaining annual commemorative activities and developing 10-year periodic reports, key activities to fulfill the three basic functions of Biosphere Reserves, namely Conservation, Support, and Development—have not been adequately pursued by localities. The 10-year periodic assessment reports required by UNESCO are fairly well-implemented by Biosphere Reserves and localities. However, the recommendations from these reports have not been clearly proposed to promote strengths and limit weaknesses in the sustainable development of future Biosphere Reserves. The underlying cause of these limitations is that the evaluation of the effectiveness of management and coordination of Biosphere Reserves from national to local levels still adheres to administrative trends, and the scientific evidence supporting the evaluation process is not sufficiently clear. Therefore, recommendations from periodic reports still tend to be procedural and responsible for the Vietnamese government agencies as well as UNESCO. Particularly, these recommendations have not been legally institutionalized or institutionalized to leverage the Biosphere Reserve title in the comprehensive and sustainable development of localities with Biosphere Reserves. Based on this reality, the construction of a Framework to evaluate the effectiveness of management and coordination of Vietnam's Biosphere Reserves through 6 management contents including i) Context and current management status; ii) Development of a Management Plan for each Biosphere Reserve; iii) Mobilization of input resources for management; iv) Management process and coordination mechanism; v) Output products of the management process; and vi) Results/Impacts of the management process. Within these six basic contents, 22 corresponding indicators and 65 specific indicators have been developed to accurately describe the context, conditions, reception process, and management/coordination/operation of each Biosphere Reserve with the participation of government authorities, scientists, business forces, local communities, and stakeholders. Thus, the application of the Framework for effective management evaluation for Vietnam's Biosphere Reserves in the process of building mid-term 5-year and periodic 10-year reports as well as the operation process and leveraging the Biosphere Reserve status of localities and countries, will help provide an accurate and objective description of the landscape of Vietnam's 11 Biosphere Reserves.

Mortality Mapping of Pinus wallichiana in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: A UNESCO World Heritage Site in India

Mortality Mapping of Pinus wallichiana in Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve: A UNESCO World Heritage Site in India

"Living in the time of the butterfly:" Engaging more-than-human temporalities to rethink biodiversity conservation

This article describes the ecological accounts of Jñato and Hñähñu (also known as Mazahua and Otomi) people who inhabit a territory that is today the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in México. We draw on their narratives, documented through a multiyear historical and ethnographic study, to discuss multispecies temporalities and reciprocal relations across more-than-human entities. Analyzing local environmental knowledge through "deep time" and relational perspectives, we invite conservation and environmental studies scholars to reconsider epistemological assumptions about time and the Anthropocene. We do so by documenting the multispecies rhythms and temporalities maintained in our research sites from time immemorial. In contrast with linear notions of time, these rhythms operate cyclically through reciprocal gifting between plants, humans, and other entities such as a water spirits and witches. The "deep time" lens that such practices offer, we suggest, can enrich biodiversity conservation and more-than-human political ecologies. We conclude by stressing that this relational "world-making" is also power-laden. Political identities are embedded in, and reconstructed through, a complex political economy and uneven relations of knowledge production. Together, these constitute what we call "the time of the butterfly."

GLOBAL WARMING: CAUSES AND IMPACT ON HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT AND THE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

As atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons rise, the Earth's surface temperature rises, a phenomenon known as global warming. A buildup of atmospheric pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2) and others absorbs solar radiation and sunlight that has reflected off the Earth's surface, leading to global warming. Pollutants like these, which may cling to Earth's atmosphere for decades or even centuries, prevent the radiation from escaping into space, leading to an increase in global temperatures. Greenhouse gases are those that trap heat; the term "greenhouse effect" describes the impact of gases such carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour, and synthetic fluorinated gases. Many species of plants and animals will see their habitats disappear as a result of the climatic shift. Many species go extinct because animals are forced to leave their native habitats. This is just one more way that biodiversity is being negatively affected by global warming. The term "biodiversity" refers to the wide range of species and their variations found in many habitats, such as those found on land, in water, and in deserts. A planet's biodiversity is a measure of its abundance and variety of living forms. It is the planet's most intricate and significant feature. Life could hardly persist in a world devoid of biodiversity. One measure of biological diversity is the variety of species present in an environment, as well as the frequency with which each species occurs. Various degrees of organismal organization are also mirrored in it. Biodiversity is important for the environment and the economy. Food, shelter, fuel, clothes, and a host of other necessities are all provided for by it. Tourism is another source of revenue for it. Therefore, in order to maintain a livelihood throughout time, it is crucial to possess a solid understanding of biodiversity. In spite of biodiversity's advantages, the risks to species and ecosystems are growing at an alarming rate, and almost all of these problems stem from human waste of biological resources, which is in turn caused by climate change, pollution, and incompetent institutions. Preserving biodiversity is crucial for achieving equity both within and between generations. Reforestation, botanical gardens, national parks, biosphere reserves, germplasm banks, and the use of breeding and tissue culture techniques as well as social forestry to reduce pressure on forest resource extraction are some of the current biodiversity conservation measures.

Water Energy Food Nexus in Urbanizing Wetlands: Challenges and Solutions Explored through Choremes and Focus Maps

Addressing complex interactions within water, energy, and food (WEF) resources, innovative tools for in-depth analysis and decision-making are imperative. This study introduces chorematic focus maps (CFMs) as a groundbreaking method to visualize and tackle the WEF nexus’s complexities, focusing specifically on the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (DDBR). By merging geospatial analysis with on-site validation, this research reveals intricate interdependencies within the nexus and positions CFMs as an effective tool for stakeholders. This study adopts a methodological approach that focuses on identifying human activities and evaluating their impacts on the WEF nexus, with the goal of developing practical and grounded strategies for managing these essential resources. By testing this approach within the DDBR, the potential for wider application is demonstrated, offering a promising framework for addressing similar socio-environmental challenges across various regions. Future research directions include refining CFMs’ precision and practicality through extended fieldwork and stakeholder engagement, testing the framework’s adaptability across various locations and nexus dynamics. Additionally, incorporating cutting-edge technologies such as machine learning could provide deeper insights and reinforce CFMs’ role in decision support for the WEF nexus. Conclusively, this investigation into the WEF nexus through CFMs emphasizes the critical need for strategies that navigate the complexities of environmental management and resource optimization, marking CFMs as a significant tool for both decision-makers and researchers.

Spatial and temporal distribution of physicochemical parameters of water in Gorgan Bay (the southeast of the Caspian Sea - Iran): Fundamentals for the monitoring of the Caspian Sea coastal areas

Gorgan Bay as a main part of the Miankaleh (a natural biosphere reserve registered by UNESCO) is one of the richest ecological area in the West Asia and very important internationally recognized refuge for the wildlife. To date, multi physicochemical parameters have not been examined on a large scale. To fill this knowledge gap, the present study aimed to explore the seasonal and spatial variability of water quality parameters of the bay. The results showed that except for depth and transparency, there are significant variations in most parameters across the four seasons. The patterns of these changes in the bay vary, as evidenced by a comparison of the distribution maps of the various factors throughout the year. Notably, alkalinity declined from east to west, reaching its highest levels at important entry points such as the Qarasu River, Bandar-Gaz, and the pier. TDS, on the other hand, increased westward, reaching its highest concentration in the shallow western regions. Maximum depth (310 cm) and transparency (250 cm) were observed in the central bay. While the pH was higher in deeper areas, the distribution of PO4 was more uniform. With lower levels in the east (salinity = 0.40 ‰) and higher levels in the west (salinity = 28.9 ‰), the salinity showed a coherent gradient. Agricultural land use in the basin of the bay and fluxes of nutrients and sediments of the rivers entering the bay has significant contribution to the bay pollution situation. These results will serve as a guide for improving our understanding of the Gorgan Bay ecosystem. They also have implications for informed conservation and management plans adapted to the specifics of this special region within the Caspian Sea.

Spatial structure of natural landscapes within the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone

The article demonstrates the results of a study of the landscape structure of the Chornobyl Radiation and Ecological Biosphere Reserve (Ukr.: Chornobylskyi radiatsiino-ekolohichnyi biosfernyi zapovidnyk – ChREBR). Because of radioactive pollution, a sharp drop in human activity, and the granting of the territory the status of a protected object, the process of area rewilding took on certain characteristics and led to the return of ecosystems’ natural processes. The studies cover a 7-year period from 2016 to 2022, i.e., from the moment this territory was granted protected status. That territory was abandoned by people more than 37 years ago and the former rural and urban landscapes have either already been transformed or are in the process of being transformed into natural ones. The scale of forest massifs has changed during the previous seven years, which has caused increased pasture overgrowth. huge forest massifs have been lost because of enormous forest fires and floods, particularly along the Pripet and Uzh rivers. Semi-natural successions occur in the gardens, and wooden homes are almost extinct. From orbit, a number of communities no longer resemble settlements. They are cloaked in bushes and trees instead. For places that have been ploughed, the same holds true. The last seven years show that change is happening more slowly than in the decades before. The pattern of natural processes in ecosystems, including periodic fires, the blocking of reclamation channels, and other factors, is the primary driver of changes in the composition of the land cover.

Proximity to natural forests failed to rescue a declining agroforestry tree species

The conservation of species in human-modified landscapes such as agroforestry systems is central to global conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Understanding the dynamics of key species in agroforestry systems is important for predicting the sustainability of these systems. However, the population dynamics of agroforestry tree species are often unknown, and planning for the management of these systems is generally grounded on the untested assumption that the tree component will persist over time. Here, we developed an integral projection model for Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae), one of the most important tree species in traditional agroforestry systems in West Africa. We collected three years of demographic data from six populations around the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin to parameterize this model and test the effect of populations’ proximity to natural habitats on the short- and long-term dynamics of V. paradoxa. However, models suggest that V. paradoxa populations are projected to decline at a yearly rate of 10.6% and within the next two decades, this tree will be locally extinct. We found a significant positive effect of proximity to natural forest on the long-term population dynamics, but this failed to save populations from decline. Elasticity analyses show that the best strategy to slow down such a decline includes preserving the largest mature trees. However, traditional management systems that protect shea butter trees in agroforestry systems are now replaced by increasing tree cutting to produce firewood, charcoal and carve out mortars and pestles. The decline of this key agroforestry tree poses a broader threat to long-term sustainability of agroforestry systems.

Household Dependence on Forest Resources in the Luki Biosphere Reserve, Democratic Republic of CONGO.

This study was aimed at examining the contribution of forest products to rural livelihoods and the socio-economic factors that influence household forest dependence in the Luki Biosphere Reserve. A structured questionnaire poll of 193 households randomly chosen from two enclaves in the Luki Biosphere Reserve, and focus group discussions were used to gather the data. For data analysis, a binary logistic regression model was used. The study revealed a substantial contribution of forest products to household livelihood based on household wealth strata and the gender of the household head. The contribution of forest income has been found to be higher for poor households than to other wealth categories, although their mean income from forest was low. However, the present research further revealed that household forest dependence was significantly determined by socioeconomic factors such as length of residency, age, sex, education, employment and household size. Compared to their elderly counterparts, the youth were probably more dependent on forest products. Therefore, there should be increased capacity-building efforts among the young people to enable them enlighten the local communities about the need for sustainable forest management. Meanwhile, highly educated people were observed to be less dependent on forests. The findings of this research provides empirical evidence from the Mayombe tropical forest, thus contributing to the growth of knowledge on the impact of socioeconomic factors on the household dependence on forest resources, especially in the tropical forest of the Democratic Republic of Congo where the complexity of the relationship between local communities and their environment is still being studied.