Biomass Oil Research Articles

Devolatilization Studies of Oil Palm Biomass for Torrefaction Process through Scanning Electron Microscopy

In this work, palm oil biomass consisting of empty fruit bunch (EFB), mesocarp fibre and palm kernel shell (PKS) were chosen as raw material for torrefaction process. Torrefaction process was conducted at various temperatures of 240 °C, 270 °C and 300 °C with a residence time of 60 minutes. The morphology of the raw and torrefied biomass was then observed through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images. Also, through this experiment the correlation between the torrefaction temperatures with the volatile gases released were studied. From the observation, the morphology structure of the biomass exhibited inter-particle gaps due to the release of volatile gases and it is obviously seen more at higher temperatures. Moreover, the change of the biomass structure is influenced by the alteration of the lignocellulose biomass.

菜籽油和亚麻籽油对粒毛盘菌生物量和代谢产物的影响

本文主要研究了不同浓度的菜籽油和亚麻籽油对粒毛盘菌YM406生物量和代谢产物的影响。向培养基中分别添加0.5%、1%、2%、3%和4%的菜籽油和亚麻籽油进行发酵10天，发现当菜籽油浓度为1%，亚麻籽油浓度为2%时，生物量与未添加油脂的平均生物量(4.29 g/L)差距不大，分别是4.26 g/L和4.27 g/L，而其他浓度都会不同程度地抑制生物量。但同一油脂不同浓度间生物量没有显著性差异。不同浓度的菜籽油和亚麻籽油对胞外多糖(LEP)产量均有明显的抑制作用。选择添加1%菜籽油和添加2%亚麻籽油的发酵液，采用液相色谱-质谱联用技术(LC-MS)，分别检测了经氯仿、乙酸乙酯萃取及未萃取的发酵液中代谢产物，检测结果显示添加1%菜籽油发酵液共检测出27种物质，添加2%亚麻籽油发酵液共检测出20种物质，添加这两种油脂的发酵液中检测出的物质只有4种相同，这说明不同类型的油脂对代谢产物类型有显著影响。添加1%菜籽油发酵液经两种萃取剂萃取后只有3种相同物质，而添加2%亚麻籽油后只有4种，说明不同萃取剂萃取后发酵液的检测结果差异明显。本研究结果表明，不同类型的油脂对粒毛盘菌YM406生物量和多糖产量具有抑制作用，并且不同浓度的油脂抑制作用不同；不同类型的油脂会影响粒毛盘菌YM406代谢产物种类。 The research mainly investigated the effects of different concentrations of rapeseed oil and linseed oil on biomass and metabolites of Lachnum sp. Different concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% rapeseed oil or linseed oil were added into culture medium respectively and fermented for 10 days, it was found that the biomass of 1% rapeseed oil and 2% linseed oil were 4.26 g/L and 4.27 g/L, which were almost equal to that absence of lipids (4.29 g/L), while the biomass with rapeseed oil and linseed oil of other concentrations was inhibited at different degrees. However, there was no significant difference in the biomass of the same oil among different concentrations. Rapeseed oil and linseed oil in different concentrations could inhibit exopolysaccharides (LEP) production significantly. The fermentation broth with 1% rapeseed oil and 2% linseed oil was selected, then metabolites in chloroform and ethyl acetate extraction components of fermentation broth and the original one were analyzed by Liquid Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (LC-MS), the results showed that 27 kinds of substances were detected in the fermentation broth with 1% rapeseed oil and 20 kinds of substances were detected in the one with 2% linseed oil, only 4 same substances were detected in the fermentation broth added with these two kinds of lipids, which suggested that different kinds of lipids had significant influences on metabolites. 3 same substances were detected in the fermentation broth with 1% rapeseed oil after extracted with two extraction solvents, while 4 same substances were detected in the fermentation broth (with 2% flax seed oil) extractions, which illustrated that the test results of different broth extractions were obviously different. The results of the research indicate that different kinds of lipids have inhibiting effects on biomass and LEP production of Lachnum and the inhibition effects of different concentrations of oil are different; different kinds of lipids can affect the types of metabolites of Lachnum.

Feasibility of Hydrocarbon Fuels Production from Thermal Conversion Products of Combined Wood Biomass and Residual Fuel Oil

The physicochemical properties of liquid products from pyrolysis of wood biomass alone and its blend with residual fuel oil are compared. The characteristics of the liquid pyrolysis products with residual fuel oil in the mixed feedstock show a tendency to vary. Thermal conversion of combined sawdust and residual fuel oil in a 1:3 ratio provides the maximum yield and the best physicochemical properties of the liquid bioproduct. The possibility of utilizing the middle-distillate fractions of the pyrolysis products as diesel fuel components is examined.

Oil-rich nonseed tissues for enhancing plant oil production.

Abstract Plants are being engineered for enhanced ethanol production; however, challenges remain in meeting the demand for bioenergy that is expected to double by 2030. Therefore, targeting carbon accumulation in the form of energy-dense oils in nonseed biomass is considered a superior alternative for bioenergy production. Although oils in the form of triacylglycerols (TAGs) are typically stored in seed tissues, various nonseed tissues such as mesocarp, tubers, stems and leaves also serve as storage tissues for TAG accumulation in plants. Moreover, the biomass of these tissues is generally far greater than seed biomass. In order to increase oil content in nonseed biomass for bioenergy and nutritional purposes, it is important to understand how such plants naturally accumulate TAG in nonseed tissues. Several molecular approaches, including transcriptomics, have been undertaken to elucidate the metabolic and regulatory mechanisms of carbon partitioning in oil-rich nonseed tissues. Such studies are expected to generate important transgenic tools that can be used to alter fatty acid metabolism and engineer plants to produce oil-rich biomass successfully. This review focuses on the potential of different oil-rich nonseed tissues and the strategies developed for enhancing oil biomass.

Renewable, local electricity generation from palm oil mill residues : a case study from Peninsular Malaysia.

The potential for generating renewable electricity from palm oil mill residues (POMR) has received policy support from the Malaysian Government for almost two decades. However, uptake of the technology is still relatively low. A significant issue dominating the discussion for many years is how to translate the renewable electricity generation potential from POMR into actual implementation. The research seeks to understand the opportunities and barriers for the use of POMR for a Renewable Electricity System (POMR-RES) in Peninsular Malaysia by assessing the technical, techno-economic and environmental feasibility of generating renewable electricity from palm oil mill residues focusing mainly on empty fruit bunches (EFB) and biogas. A combination of mathematical analysis and simulation using Aspen PlusTM software was employed to assess the technical feasibility of the system. Techno-economic analysis was combined with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to integrate the environmental impact perspective into the POMR-RES evaluation. The results show that EFB has better technical and techno-economic performance than the biogas. Furthermore, the on-site POMR-RES with an installed capacity of 5.70 MW or greater is technically feasible, economically viable and environmentally favourable. The electricity generated from a POMR-RES of this scale is sufficient to meet a mill’s operational electricity demand, the parasitic load of the POMR-RES and provide surplus electricity to the national grid. An economically feasible size POMR-RES are expected to provide: 1. a 20% return on investment (ROI) with five to seven-year payback period (PP). 2. a positive net present value (NPV) with break-even point (BEP) of five to seven-year. The electricity generated in POMR-RES emits 95% less GHG emissions compared with current Malaysian electricity grid average when the emission from LUC is excluded from the electricity generation process. Thirty-five mills in Peninsular Malaysia were identified as having sufficient EFB supply to operate at or above this economically feasible size with the total accumulated generation capacity of 200 MW. This accumulated capacity would account for 25% of the 2020 target for palm oil biomass under National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan. This research provides a positive case for generating local, renewable electricity from EFB that can be used as evidence and practical recommendations for various actors such as prospective investors, analysts, stakeholders, mill owners and policymakers and government agencies such as the Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia (SEDA) for efficient and sustainable utilization of POMR. This study also makes a positive contribution towards achieving the national renewable energy target for additional renewable power supplies and as a contribution towards improved global sustainability.

Renewable, local electricity generation from palm oil mills: a case study from Peninsular Malaysia

The potential for generating renewable electricity from palm oil mill residues (POMR) has received policy support from the Malaysian Government for almost two decades. However, uptake of the technology is still relatively low. A significant issue dominating the discussion for many years is how to translate the renewable electricity generation potential from POMR into actual implementation. The research seeks to understand the opportunities and barriers for the use of POMR for a Renewable Electricity System (POMR-RES) in Peninsular Malaysia by assessing the technical, techno-economic and environmental feasibility of generating renewable electricity from palm oil mill residues focusing mainly on empty fruit bunches (EFB) and biogas. A combination of mathematical analysis and simulation using Aspen PlusTM software was employed to assess the technical feasibility of the system. Techno-economic analysis was combined with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to integrate the environmental impact perspective into the POMR-RES evaluation. The results show that EFB has better technical and techno-economic performance than the biogas. Furthermore, the on-site POMR-RES with an installed capacity of 5.70 MW or greater is technically feasible, economically viable and environmentally favourable. The electricity generated from a POMR-RES of this scale is sufficient to meet a mill’s operational electricity demand, the parasitic load of the POMR-RES and provide surplus electricity to the national grid. An economically feasible size POMR-RES are expected to provide: 1. a 20% return on investment (ROI) with five to seven-year payback period (PP). 2. a positive net present value (NPV) with break-even point (BEP) of five to seven-year. The electricity generated in POMR-RES emits 95% less GHG emissions compared with current Malaysian electricity grid average when the emission from LUC is excluded from the electricity generation process. Thirty-five mills in Peninsular Malaysia were identified as having sufficient EFB supply to operate at or above this economically feasible size with the total accumulated generation capacity of 200 MW. This accumulated capacity would account for 25% of the 2020 target for palm oil biomass under National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan. This research provides a positive case for generating local, renewable electricity from EFB that can be used as evidence and practical recommendations for various actors such as prospective investors, analysts, stakeholders, mill owners and policymakers and government agencies such as the Sustainable Energy Development Authority Malaysia (SEDA) for efficient and sustainable utilization of POMR. This study also makes a positive contribution towards achieving the national renewable energy target for additional renewable power supplies and as a contribution towards improved global sustainability.

Synthesis of multiple biomass corridor via decomposition approach: a P-graph application

The increase of the global population has a negative impact to the environment due to the direct correlation between the amount of solid waste generated and the population growth. In order to create a more sustainable future, an adequate waste management system is necessary. Utilisation of biomass that have potential to be converted into various forms of valuable products (i.e. energy, biochemical and value-added products) is a promising way to deal with the increasing amount of agriculture residues. Therefore, it is suggested to develop a multi-biomass corridor in order to promote a global sustainable development of renewable energy. However, this large-scale problem normally consists of a huge number of variables (large set of possible locations of processing hub, large set of operating units and large set of material involved). This will lead to a longer computational duration due to the high complexity of the network. In order to address this issue, a novel “Decomposition Approach” which integrates P-graph framework and conventional mathematical modelling is proposed in this paper. The presented approach is demonstrated via an actual case study in Johor. In this paper, the correlated cost function for the four main biomass in Johor (i.e. palm oil biomass, sugarcane bagasse, pineapple residue and paddy biomass) is formulated. On top of that, a multiple biomass supply chain which integrates three underutilised biomass into the palm oil biomass supply chain in Johor is synthesised successfully and efficiently as well. The result shows that about 82% of the overall variables in this case study are removed from the model after applying the proposed approach, causing a 50% reduction in the computational time. This indicates that the proposed approach is useful for real-world applications. However, regular revision on the model is recommended in order to assure the reliability of the result. In addition, this paper also outlines several potential extension works that can be conducted in future.

Application of Gibberellic Acid, Humic Acid on Yield of Essential Oil Menthapiperita

The research for pot cultivation under greenhouse conditions in Central Province, Arak and Arak Islamic Azad University in crop year 1393 was conducted. The effects of humic acid and gibberellic acid on growth and production of Menthapiperita essential oil in order to reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers were used. According to the analysis of variance and simple effects and interactions of humic acid treatments and gibberellic acid in Menthapiperita, Was determined using the above treatments increase the growth and biomass and oil yields compared to the control H1 G1 has a Menthapiperita plant And it can be concluded that the best treatments G4 G3 but with regard to performance and Near the results of treatments H3 G3 H4 G2 and the results of the above treatments H4 G3 can be used as a complement to chemical fertilizers in the cultivation of this plant. The results of this testing demonstrate the use of humic acid and gibberellic acid on key attributes such as biomass and Menthapiperita essential oil yield good effects and Were reasonable. In comparison with other projects that have different levels of fertilizer use, is almost identical functionality. Which indicates that the cultivation of Menthapiperita can be reduced by 30 to 50 percent of the fertilizer from humic acid used gibberellic.

Effect of Nutrients on Drug Production and Essential Oil Content of Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis L.)

:Nutrient supply of several medicinal plants is often carried out according to empirical knowledge without proper data on specific requirements. In a recent three years (2009–2011) open field experiment in Budapest, Hungary we examined the effects of different fertilizers on biomass, drug yield and essential oil content of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.). In general, effects of the treatments were more pronounced on the results of the second harvest than that of the first one. The treatment with 150 kg/ha N+22 kg/ha P supplemented by 36 kg/ha Mg resulted in 25–27 % higher folium mass compared to both untreated and N+P treated plots. Similarly, supplementary dosages of 36 kg/ha Mg+149 kg/ha K assured by 24 % more folium yield compared to untreated and 10 % more yield compared to N+P fertilized control. In some cases decreased leaf proportion parallel with enhanced yields could be observed. The best fertilization treatments assuring highest yield, tend to produce a slight decrease in essential oil content of the leaves of the second harvest but still an appropriate drug quality due to Ph.Eur.

Effects of different microhabitas on growth and four kinds of volatile oil components of Atractylodes lancea

To investigate the suitable site environment for Atractylodes lancea, field trials in different niches was carried out, and the seedling growth, biomass and volatile oil components in different microhabitas was studied. The study found that the survival rate, plant height, volatile oil content of those which growing under the bamboo were significantly higher than those exposed in the open field. The survival rate understory was (76 ± 15.1) %, plant height understory was (77 ± 14. 8) cm and the summation of the four kinds of volatile oil content understory reached up to 4.09%; The same evaluation values of these indicators of the four faces in the open field respectively: survival rate is 30%, plant height was (77 ± 14.8) cm and the summation of the four kinds of volatile oil content was 2.24%. But, the yield of the understory (41 ± 22.3) g was significantly lower than those four faces in the open field (104.5 g) on the contrary. For the four open field towards, the yield of the east facing, which organic matter and other nutritional conditions were better than others, was significantly higher than those in the other facings. A. lancea was found to be an anti-poor and shading-like or growing in east facing slope herb through the correlation analysis of light, temperature, soil and leaf nutrients with seedling growth, biomass and volatile oil components. It also reminds us that the understory herb with high survival rate, low incidence, low management costs, and high medicinal ingredients, although it's production is not so high, but it can be improved by increased organic fertilizer. So the ecological planting patterns which can intercropping herbs with the forest was proposed.

English

Siparuna guianensis Aubl. (Siparunaceae) is an aromatic medicinal plant native to South America. This study aimed to investigate the biomass and bioactivity of leaf extracts and essential oil of S. guianensis from savanna forests in Central Brazil, Tocantins State. Crude leaf extract and leaf essential oil were tested in different concentrations against bacteria and fungi. At concentrations equivalent to crude oil (380 µg ml-1), oil diluted to half (190 µg ml-1) and oil diluted to one quarter (95 µg ml-1), the oil inhibited bacterial growth of Staphylococcus aureus. This finding may be related to the major monoterpene and sesquiterpene, especially bisabolol and bisabolene, which have antibacterial properties. The extracts did not exhibit antimicrobial action. Under the natural conditions of the forest legal reserve, the estimated medicinal biomass was 3300 kg ha-1, with the leaf fraction corresponding to 38 kg ha-1 of crude extract and 5 L ha-1 of essential oil. It is an important reservoir of medicinal biomass foliar for prospective studies and popular use against antimicrobial which are of interest to health or agriculture.   Key words: Siparuna guianensis, bioactivity, medicinal biomass, gas chromatography, Brazil, agroecology.

In-depth investigation on thermochemical characteristics of palm oil biomasses as potential biofuel sources

The accurate determination of the biomass thermal properties is particularly important while studying biomass pyrolysis processes. The aim of this study is to investigate the different palm oil biomass samples (palm kernel shell (PKS), empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm mesocarp fiber (PMF)) thermochemical behavior during pyrolysis. Thermogravimetric analysis coupled with spectroscopy (mass spectroscopy (TGA-MS) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR)) and also differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were employed to investigate the biomass thermal degradation. TGA and DSC results were obtained at temperature ranging from 25°C to 850°C and 500°C, respectively, using pure nitrogen as inert gas and at the heating rate of 15°C/min. TGA curves showed different stages for the biomasses thermochemical behavior associated with dehydration (stage 1), slow depolymerization (stage 2) and pyrolytic degradation (stage 3), while DSC indicated the caloric requirement in these stages. The main permanent evolved gases comprising H2, CO2, CO were detected online during analysis. The major permanent gases produced at the temperature range of 250–750°C were attributed to the biomasses pyrolysis, oxygenated functional groups cleavage and probably some secondary reactions. Furthermore, the bio-oils produced from the different biomasses pyrolysis, in a fixed-bed reactor, were analyzed by GC–MS and FTIR. The pyrolysis kinetics of different palm oil biomasses were investigated using the Coats-Redfern model.

Properties of Mortar Containing High Volume Palm Oil Biomass Waste

The utilization of waste materials which are abundant and cheap, especially from clean resources, has become more pressing than ever. This paper, discusses the utilization of the wastes in the form of palm oil fuel ash and oil palm kernel shell in the production of mortar mixes as a part of new and innovative materials in construction industry. The studies include the basic properties including the morphology of the composite with regards to variations in the mix design process. In order to get a better performance in terms of strength development, the ash used has gone through heat treatment and ground up to the size less than 2µm. High volume of 60%, 80% and 100% palm oil fuel ash was used as cement replacement. The incorporation of more than 80% of palm oil biomass waste as cement and sand replacement has produced mortar having an improved compressive strength than normal mortar. In addition, the density of the mortar with biomass waste was less than normal mortar. Overall results have revealed that the inclusion of high volume palm oil biomass waste can produce mortar mix with high strength, good performance and most importantly more sustainable.

BIOMASS PRODUCTION AND OIL YIELD OF LEMONGRASS IN PUNALUR FOREST DIVISION, KERALA, INDIA.

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) cultivation and oil distillation from its biomass are some of the important sources of earning for the rural people and tribal communities of sourthern Western Ghats in certain specific localities. Punalur Forest Division of Kerala is one such region where some local public involved in these practices. However, no data are available on the biomass production and oil yield of lemongrass for this region. Therefore, the present study has been carried out in this line. The results of the study reports that annual biomass production was greater (9250kg/ha/yr) and comparable to that of theother lemongrass cultivated areas. Similarly, the oil yield was also higher (46.7kg/ha/yr) and the concentration of oil varied significantly across the harvesting times (0.43-0.63%). The statistical processing of data elucidates that soil pH and calcium content were having significant positive correlation to lemongrassbiomass production. Oil concentration in the biomass was negatively correlated to relative humidity. Therefore, soil nutrient status can be considered as a key factor while preparing the management plan for lemongrass cultivation in Punalur Forest Division

Effect of potassium and potting-bag size on foliar biomass and related attributes and oil composition of rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens)

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of four concentrations of potassium (K; 1.3, 3.3, 5.3 and 7.3 mmol L−1) and two potting-bag sizes (5 and 10 L) on foliar biomass and related attributes and oil composition of rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens). Plants were grown in a climate-controlled greenhouse at the University of the Free State and treatments were arranged in a split plot design. Potassium concentrations were allocated to the main plots and potting-bag size to the subplots replicated three times. Plant height, K tissue content, linalool, geraniol, geranyl formate and citronellol:geraniol ratio were affected by the K application. Plant height, number of branches, branch:height ratio, foliage fresh mass, K tissue content and oil yield were affected by the potting-bag size. Foliar fresh mass was significantly increased by the interaction between K concentration and potting-bag size. Growers may use a 5.3 mmol L−1 K concentration and a 5 L potting bag for optimum production of rose geranium under soil-less cultivation.

The Effect of Viral Infection on Essential Oil Content, Chemical Composition and Biomass Yield of Mentha cultivars

Mentha species are cultivated as industerial crops mainly in Uttar Pradesh and parts of Punjab for production of essential oil but not commerially cultivated in Gujarat. To promote cultivation of some Mentha species in the region, promising cultivars of Mentha arvensis L. (cv. Himalaya and cv. Kosi) and M. spicata L. (cv. MSS-5) were planted in experimental fields to study their performance in ground conditions. During the initial growth period, some cultivars showed symptoms of virus infection for the first time from the region. The characteristic symptoms of the leaves were foliar rugosty, light yellow mosaic, upward curling and retarded growth. The composition of the essential oils obtained from the aerial parts of three viral infected cultivars of Mentha by hydro-distillation were determined by GC-MS. The amounts of oil in healthy and infected M. arvensis cv. Himalaya (0.46 % and 0.31 %), M. arvensis cv. Kosi (0.69 % and 0.21 %) and M. spicata cv. MSS-5 (0.59 % and 0.46 %) were recorded. Twenty two compounds, constituting 90.1 % to 98.6 % of the oil were identified. Menthol (60.8-68.2 %), d-menthone (13.2-17.3 %), menthone (6.5-7.1 %), limonene (6.1-7.1 %) and p-menth-2-ene (3.0-3.4 %) were main compounds in M. arvensis cultivars. Similarly, healthy and infected Mentha spicata cv. MSS-5 had carvone (53.3 % and 46.7 %) and limonene (26.5 % and 29.7 %) as main compounds. Results showed that the viral disease together with presence of whitefly have caused considerable loss of biomass yield and essential oil in the cultivars of Mentha species but had less affect on major compounds, mainly menthol, limonene, menthone and carvone.

A Review of Palm Oil Biomass as a Feedstock for Syngas Fuel Technology

Fossil fuel as the world dominated energy source is depleting and posing environmental issue. Therefore, Synthesis gas (or syngas) which serve environmental clean fuel characteristic is expected to play a major role as one of the potential renewable energy in the future. Syngas, produced from solid feedstock (such as biomass, coal, refinery residual, organic waste and municipal waste) via gasification process can be used directly as fuel for power generation. Besides, syngas also acts as key intermediary to produce transport fuel depending on their quality. The chosen feedstock for syngas production determines the composition and heating value of the syngas produced and hence will be reviewed in general. This paper then review critically palms biomass as the potential source of feedstock for syngas production, as it is widely accessible in the context Malaysia. Palm biomass presents a solution that is sustainable and eco-friendly that is yet to be fully capitalized in the palm oil industry. Some of the palm biomass including oil palm frond (OPF), empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm kernel shell (PKS) are identified to contain high heating value which indicate their potential use as solid biomass feedstock for syngas production.

Potentiality of Palm Oil Biomass with Cow Dung for compost production

Recently, researchers are focused on the use of biomasses generated in oil palm industry as compost to overcome their negative impacts and recycle them to produce a useful byproduct for agriculture. This study investigated formation of compost from Palm Oil Biomass (POB) by adding Cow Dung (CD). The experiment was carried out under shade in plastic bins at different POB and CD ratios (4:0, 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3) to activate decomposition mechanism up to 11 weeks. Decomposing materials was frequently moistened and turned accordingly. The addition of CD has facilitated the co posting process and treatment with 1:3 ratio of POB and CD had better quality than other treatments such that the C/N ratio, the Electrical Conductivity (EC) and pH for mature compost were 22.2, 2.83 mS.m-T and 7.81 respectively.

Effects of Biomass and Crude Oil Co-Combustion on NO and SO2 Emissions

In this paper, a tube electric furnace is used to process the co-combustion of biomass and crude oil in air atmosphere, the influence of the biomass mass fraction and the temperature on NO and SO2 emissions are analysed. Research shows that with the increasing addition ratio of biomass to crude oil, the amount of NO in per unit heat reduces. This tendency is more apparent at high temperatures. Compared with crude oil, the NO emission of 20% biomass mass fraction at 1100°C is reduced by 25.8% while 19.02% at 700°C. SO2 emission in per unit heat decreases with the increasing biomass mass fraction. This tendency is more apparent at low temperatures. Compared with crude oil The generation of SO2 of 20% biomass mass fraction can reduce 91.5% at 700°C while 36.7% at 1100°C.

High-productivity lipid production using mixed trophic state cultivation of Auxenochlorella (Chlorella) protothecoides.

A mixed trophic state production process for algal lipids for use as feedstock for renewable biofuel production was developed and deployed at subpilot scale using a green microalga, Auxenochlorella (Chlorella) protothecoides. The process is composed of two separate stages: (1) the photoautotrophic stage, focused on biomass production in open ponds, and (2) the heterotrophic stage focused on lipid production and accumulation in aerobic bioreactors using fixed carbon substrates (e.g., sugar). The process achieved biomass and lipid productivities of 0.5 and 0.27 g/L/h that were, respectively, over 250 and 670 times higher than those obtained from the photoautotrophic cultivation stage. The biomass oil content (over 60% w/DCW) following the two-stage process was predominantly monounsaturated fatty acids (~82%) and largely free of contaminating pigments that is more suitable for biodiesel production than photosynthetically generated lipid. Similar process performances were obtained using cassava hydrolysate as an alternative feedstock to glucose.