Biolubricant Production Research Articles

Improving the recycling technology of waste cooking oils: Chemical fingerprint as tool for non-biodiesel application

Samples of sunflower Waste Cooking Oils (WCOs) subjected to several cycles of frying were treated with water under four different combinations of temperature and pH. Several aspects of the chemical composition of edible, non-treated and processed samples was determined by three different analytic techniques: headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas-chromatography (GC), 1H NMR spectroscopy and ESI-MS spectrometry. Thus, a characteristic chemical fingerprint of each sample was derived and proposed as useful set of tools for the optimization of recycling of WCOs. On the basis of the presented results, a mini-plant for the production of bio-lubricants and bio-solvents with a circular economy approach was designed and herein described.

Biolubricant production from palm stearin through enzymatic transesterification method

The present study aims to develop environmentally benign lubricant from by-product of palm oil processing through enzymatic reaction. Candida antartica lipase was employed as catalyst to transesterified reaction between palm stearin and methanol in a solvent-free system. The reaction parameters were varied in terms of molar ratio of methanol-to-palm stearin (3:1 to 8:1), temperature (between 40 and 70 °C), time (2–12 h) and concentration of catalyst (from 2 to 10 wt.%). Enzymatic transesterification demonstrated around 95.26% maximum yield of palm stearin methyl ester under the following conditions: 4:1 methanol-to-PS molar ratio, reaction temperature of 60 °C, reaction time of 8 h and 6.0 wt. % of lipase concentration. The Structural modification of palm stearin resulted in improvement in both physicochemical and tribological properties. The produced biolubricant demonstrated superior viscosity index (>120) and friction properties over commercial mineral oil-based lubricant. This study showed that lubricant derived from palm stearin has a great potential to be used as a base stock in regard to favourable biodegradability and tribological performance.

Non-edible vegetable oil–based feedstocks capable of bio-lubricant production for automotive sector applications—a review

Fossil fuel resource is on the draining stage which leads to an increment in the cost of the petroleum products. Nowadays, research is focused on the development of environment-friendly lubricants which are derivatives of renewable sources. Bio-lubricants based on non-edible oil sources are environmentally friendly because they are non-hazardous and biodegradable and no emission of toxic gases were detected when they are used. This study involves the characterizations and advantages, as well as utilization of inedible plant oil-driven bio-lubricants as an alternative for tribological applications. This report also presents the status of the global lubricant market as well as the potential outlook of the bio-lubricants for their future usage. Non-edible plant oil-driven bio-lubricants bear high viscosity, high lubricity, and high viscosity index which can enhance the equipment service life and deserve the ability to carry the high load and results in a minimum amount of metal traces during combustion while applied to engines. Beside their advantages, some of the disadvantages are also there which can be addressed by the employment of certain additives available according to the applications. The detailed study about the different additives utilized during their use in the internal combustion engine is also described in detail during this study. This study provides a detailed description of the possibilities associated with bio-lubricant based on non-edible oil feedstocks to the automotive sector applications.

Understanding the degree of estolide enzymatic polymerization and the effects on its lubricant properties

The aim of this study was to understand estolide enzyme polymerization from free ricinoleic acid (FRA) and its lubricant properties, by controlling the reaction time, during the course of a reaction involving a two-step enzymatic hydroesterification from castor oil. Adding water increased the reaction rate, reducing the total acidity to 30% in 24 h. FRA is the major component of castor oil (up to 90%). A GC analysis of the FRA, expressed as g/100 g of sample, was used to determine the FRA profile during estolide polymerization. These data suggested a relationship between the total acidity of the samples and the FRA concentration. The estolide profile and number (EN) were determined by GPC and NMR analyses. A 14-hour reaction time was needed for total consumption of FRA, with an EN of 5.5 and a degree of polymerization of the major estolide of 6/7. The analysis showed that estolides of several sizes [dimers, trimers, tetramers, and pentamers (+)] were produced during the reaction; between 8 and 14 h the EN grew exponentially until reaching a plateau after about 16 h of reaction. From 14 to 24 h, although the estolide-size profile did not change significantly, EN continued to increase with increasing reaction time, until a polymerization degree of 7/8 at 24 h. The increase in EN corresponds to the increase in the viscosity index and oxidative stability, reaching 164 and 43 min, respectively, after 20 h of reaction; as well as to the decrease in pour point and total acidity number, which reached −48 °C and 36.8 mg KOH/g of sample after 20 h of reaction. This is the first description of a kinetic method to control the degree of estolide polymerization, by controlling the reaction time; and of its relationship between the EN and the lubricant properties of these molecules, aiming toward the production of different biolubricants for several applications and desired uses.

Study on The Potential of Waste Cockle Shell Derived Calcium Oxide for Biolubricant Production

Abstract Biolubricant which can be produced from the sources of vegetable oils and animal fats are drawing great attention to replace petroleum based lubricant due to more sustainable and environmentally friendly. In this study, the performance of calcium oxide derived from waste cockle shell is studied as the heterogeneous base catalyst to produce biolubricant from waste cooking oil (WCO) as the feedstock. The biolubricant was synthesized via two steps transesterification reaction at different molar ratio of trimethylolpropane (TMP) to oil (3:1, 3.5:1 and 4:1), catalyst loading (3, 4 and 5% w/w) and constant reaction temperature of 130°C and 4h of reaction time. The physical properties such as viscosity and viscosity index were studied as well as fatty acid composition from GC analysis and functional group from FTIR analysis. The result showed that the TMP triester conversion was obtained at 97% for 4% w/w of catalyst loading and 3:1 of molar ratio of TMP to oil. The physical properties of TMP triesters shown that it fulfill the requirement of ISO VG32. FTIR analysis for derived catalyst confirm that WCS has the potential to replace commercial calcium oxide for biolubricant production. While the analysis of FTIR for TMP triester shows superior thermal stability and low-temperature due to functional group present. As the conclusion, waste cockle shells have promising viability in the two steps transesterification for biolubricant production.

Biolubricant production from edible and novel indigenous vegetable oils: mainstream methodology, and prospects and challenges in Iran

AbstractThe reduction in crude oil resources, its volatile prices, and the irreparable environmental pollution caused by their production and consumption have led to worrying global challenges. At the same time, ever‐increasing population growth and growing industrialization have resulted in an increasing demand for petroleum‐based crude oil products, including lubricants. In this respect, the proper management of biomass to produce higher value‐added products such as biolubricants is very important. Iran, with a population of more than 80 million, is the fourth largest producer of crude oil and one of the largest lubricant producers in the region, but the development of clean bio‐based lubricants has always been neglected there, mostly due to the abundance of petroleum. The present study, reviewing the status of Iran's lubricant industry and its technical and environmental challenges, investigates the potential use of conventional edible oils and introduces novel drought‐resistant native edible oil sources, for the production of biolubricants. It is believed that this case study could be of assistance to researchers and specialists in developing countries, enabling them to take action to confront the challenges ahead by relying on sustainable development based on renewable and environmentally friendly products. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Optimization of rubber seed oil extraction using liquefied dimethyl ether

The objective of this study was to find the optimal condition for the extraction of rubber seed oil (RSO), using liquefied dimethyl ether (DME). Response surface methodology with a spherical central composite design model was employed to determine the optimal extraction condition, consisting of a seed moisture content (%wt), a solvent to solid ratio (g/g), and an extraction temperature (°C). A quadratic regression equation suggested the optimal extraction condition was a moisture content of 56.4%wt, a solvent to solid ratio of 6.7 (g/g), and a temperature of 33.3 °C. At this condition, the RSO yield predicted by the model gave a slight deviation of 0.68% from the experimentally validated results (41.48 versus 41.20%). RSO has a kinematic viscosity of 36.8 cSt, an acid value of 10.7 KOH/g oil, a fatty acid content of 5.1% and an unsaturated fatty acid content of 80%, resulting in the potential production of biodiesel, biolubricants, and biodegradable plastics.

Measurement and correlation of the density, viscosity and vapor pressure of fatty acid 2-ethyhexyl esters

Fatty acid 2-ethylhexyl esters are used for the eco-friendly production of biolubricant. There are several reports on their synthesis, but thermodynamics and transport data of these compounds are lacking. Herein, density and viscosity of palmitic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester, stearic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester and soya oil 2-ethylhexyl esters in the temperature range of T = (298.18–368.15) K at atmospheric pressure were measured and the vapor pressure in the temperature range of T = (476.95–500.85, 477.05–498.05, 477.75–500.05) K was determined. The obtained experimental data were correlated using temperature-dependence correlation equations, and the correlation coefficients of all the equations were over 0.999. In order to examine the reliability of the data, the GCVOL group method was used to evaluate densities for these fatty acid 2-ethylhexyl esters with the maximum relative deviation of −1.34%. The experimental viscosity data of synthesized 2-ethylhexyl esters were compared with those of lauric acid 2-ethylhexyl ester, palmitic acid n-octyl ester and oleic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester from previous studies. In addition, the molar enthalpy of vaporization at the mean temperature of the experimental range was calculated for the first time using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.

Vegetable Oil to Biolubricants: Review on Advanced Porous Catalysts

Vegetable oil is one of the most potential sustainable feedstocks to produce fuels and chemicals. The review emphasizes isomerization of fatty acid as an important path for biolubricant production. The role of solid acid catalysts, including zeolites, was highlighted to design better isomerization catalysts. The isomerization is a favored mesoporous site with intermediate Bronsted acid strength, which is also enhanced after metal doping on a porous surface. The hierarchical ferrierite (FER) catalyst showed the best selective isomerization with the 10-membered ring cavities, which can be regenerated easily. FER can be produced using a low-cost organic structure-directing agent. The possibility to design two-dimensional pore zeolites with pore mouth selectivity was also discussed. Moreover, the challenges for biolubricant formulation, with focus on palm oil, were also discussed with a detailed comparison to other vegetable oils. The highest palm oil conversion was achieved over the base catalyst, namely, Sr...

Assessment of Quality Parameters of Ecofriendly Biolubricant from Waste Cooking Palm Oil

The use of vegetable oils as a renewable source for the production of ecofriendly biolubricant is gaining the attention of the renewable energy researchers and lubricating oil producers. This study evaluates the quality assessment parameters of ecofriendly biolubricant from waste cooking palm oil (WCPO). The crude WCPO was filtered, centrifuged at 500 rpm, and dried over Na2SO4 crystals overnight. The quality assessment parameters of the pretreated WCPO (PWCPO) were determined to authenticate its potential for the production of multigrade lubricating oils. Kinematic viscosities at 100°C (8.26±0.03 cSt) and 40°C (36.98±0.01 cSt) were determined according to ASTMD-446 method, while the viscosity index (208±0.11) was determined according to ASTMD-2270 method. A design of experiment (Mixture Design Method using Minitab 17) was used to determine the proportion of PWCPO (68.75%), SN 500 (23.75%), and additives (7.50%) that gave the mixture with the optimum quality parameters of the produced biolubricant. The produced biolubricant had kinematic viscosities at 100oC (10.72±0.13 cSt) and 40°C (59.32±0.20 cSt) respectively, a viscosity index of 173±0.10, flash point of 234±1.13°C, pour point of -31±0.10°C, acid value of 21.04±1.21 mg KOH g-1, and iodine value of 1.28±1.40 mg I2 g-1. The produced biolubricant has quality parameters that are comparable to available ecofriendly lubricating oil and was also found within standards for engine oils.

Bio-lubricants production from fish oil residue by transesterification with trimethylolpropane

The fatty acid ethyl esters mixture, a fish oil residue obtained after the extraction of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty esters, has been converted into mixtures of mono-, di-, and triesters of trimethylolpropane by transesterification at 100-140 °C under vacuum with sodium ethoxide as catalyst. This method has shown to be more efficient than the enzymatic transesterification using commercially available lipases. The crude reaction mixture (84% conversion of ethyl esters), enriched in trimethylolpropane triesters (96% selectivity) was characterized and its properties compared with those of the starting ethyl esters mixture and the trimethylolpropane esters obtained from vegetal sources.

Bioprocess development for biolubricant production using microbial oil derived via fermentation from confectionery industry wastes

Microbial oil produced from confectionery and wheat milling side streams has been evaluated as novel feedstock for biolubricant production. Nutrient-rich fermentation media were produced by a two-step bioprocess involving crude enzyme production by solid state fermentation followed by enzymatic hydrolysis of confectionery industry waste. Among 5 yeast strains and 2 fungal strains cultivated on the crude hydrolysate, Rhodosporidium toruloides and Cryptococcus curvatus were selected for further evaluation for biolubricant production based on fermentation efficiency and fatty acid composition. The extracted microbial oils were enzymatically hydrolysed and the free fatty acids were esterified by Lipomod 34-MDP in a solvent-free system with trimethylolpropane (TMP) and neopentyl glycol (NPG). The highest conversion yields were 88% and 82.7% for NPG esters of R. toruloides and C. curvatus, respectively. This study also demonstrates that NPG esters produced from microbial oil have promising physicochemical properties for bio-based lubricant formulations that could substitute for conventional lubricants.

Investigation of the Physicochemical Properties for Vegetable Oils and Their Epoxidized and Carbonated Derivatives

Vegetable oils are more and more used in industry for the production of biodiesel, biolubricant, or polymer. In this context, production of polyurethane by nonisocyanate routes involves the production of epoxidized and carbonated vegetable oils. The determination of the optimum operating conditions and the scale-up of these processes require the knowledge of different physicochemical properties such as viscosity, density, refractive index, or specific heat capacity. These data are rare for the epoxidized and carbonated vegetable oils, and the evolution of these data with the temperature is absent in the literature. This article proposes to study the evolution of these properties with temperature and composition in double bond, epoxide, and carbonated groups. It was demonstrated that density and refractive index of these oils vary linearly with temperature. Viscosity of these oils, which were found to be Newtonian fluids, is an exponential function of temperature. The ratio of specific heat capacity at a temperature to the specific heat capacity at a reference temperature follows a polynomial equation of second order with temperature. It was demonstrated that some correlations could be used to predict the evolutions of these physicochemical properties at different compositions and temperatures based on the property knowledge of the pure compounds.

Enzymatic esterification of palm fatty-acid distillate for the production of polyol esters with biolubricant properties

This contribution describes a sustainable, environmentally benign process for the production of biolubricants. The reaction was performed in a solvent-free system using a side stream from palm-oil refining (palm fatty-acid distillate, PFAD) and polyols as substrates for enzymatic catalysis. Biocatalysts consume less energy than chemical processes, and produce esters with good lubricant properties and environmentally friendly characteristics such as high biodegradability and low toxicity. The effects of different parameters (molar ratio, temperature and enzyme concentration) were evaluated during esterification of PFAD with neopentyl glycol (NPG) or trimethylolpropane (TMP) to produce polyol esters. The products obtained through esterification of PFAD with NPG and TMP in the stoichiometric molar ratio at 45 °C, using 4% (w/w) of Candida rugosa lipase, attained a modification of around 90% of hydroxyl groups (OH) at 10 and 8 h, respectively. These conditions were used to reach the maximum OH esterification for PFAD-TMP esters (94%) and PFAD-NPG esters (87%). NMR analysis of the final ester composition showed that the PFAD-TMP and PFAD-NPG esters were composed mostly of triesters and diesters, respectively. The properties of these esters were also characterized, including fusion and crystallization temperatures, viscosity, pour point and oxidative stability. The polyol esters showed promising lubricant properties, such as oxidative stability and viscosity within the acceptable range for many applications. This study demonstrated the potential of using PFAD for the production of environmentally benign polyol esters through non-conventional catalysis.

Biolubricant Production of 2‐Ethylhexyl Palmitate by Transesterification Over Unsupported Potassium Carbonate

AbstractOwing to the decrease of global oil price, development of downstream value‐added products is important to biodiesel industry. In this study, we used palmitic acid methyl ester (PAME) as a starting material to produce 2‐ethylhexyl palmitate (2‐EHP), an environmentally friendly biolubricant product, which was derived from the transesterification of fatty acid methyl esters and long chain fatty alcohols. Conventional synthetic routes of 2‐EHP have disadvantages, including high catalyst price, low conversion efficiency, and pollution issues. To solve these problems, in situ transesterification of PAME with 2‐ethylhexanol (2‐EH) was conducted over unsupported potassium carbonate as heterogeneous catalyst. The optimal reaction temperature, 2‐EH to PAME molar ratio, and catalyst to PAME mass ratio were 180 °C, 3:1, and 3.0 wt%, respectively. The PAME conversion reached up to 100% within 1 hour under the optimal conditions. In addition, a kinetic model describing the experimental data over a temperature range of 160–180 °C was developed. The dependence of kinetic rate constant (k) on temperature was evaluated, and the activation energy (Ea) for the transesterification of PAME with 2‐EH was calculated to be 57.04 kJ mol−1.

Development of catalyst complexes for upgrading biomass into ester-based biolubricants for automotive applications: a review.

Biomass-derived oils are recognised as the most promising renewable resources for the production of ester-based biolubricants due to their biodegradable, non-toxic and metal adhering properties. Homogeneous acid catalysts have been conventionally used in catalytic esterification and transesterification for the synthesis of ester-based biolubricants. Although homogeneous acid catalysts encounter difficulty during phase separation, they exhibit superior selectivity and good stereochemistry and regiochemistry control in the reaction. Consequently, transition metal complex catalysts (also known as homogeneous organometallic catalysts) are proposed for biolubricant synthesis in order to achieve a higher selectivity and conversion. Herein, the potential of both homogeneous transition metal complexes and heterogeneous supported metal complexes towards the synthesis of biolubricants, particularly, in esterification and transesterification, as well as the upgrading process, including hydrogenation and in situ hydrogenation–esterification, is critically reviewed.

A Review of Bio-lubricant Production from Vegetable Oils Using Esterification Transesterification Process

Since long time ago, petroleum oil has been used as a lubricant in motor vehicles. But, the uses of lubricants petroleum can pollute the environment and disrupt marine ecosystems and terrestrial. On the other hand, the use of lubricants in the world in 2008 reached 46 million kiloliters/year and increased by 2% every year. The future prospect the uses of lubricant petroleum on the vehicle’s engine is predicted to have a bad prospect. Thus began research to identify suitable materials to replace petroleum based lubricants. It can produce from vegetable oils and animals oils by chemical modification. But, bio-lubricant properties are easily damaged so we need more research to improve the shelf life of the bio-lubricant. The research must be done to improve the characteristics by adding a bio-lubricant additive.

Improved production of biolubricants from soybean oil and different polyols via esterification reaction catalyzed by immobilized lipase from Candida rugosa

Three commercial lipases, Lipomod 34MDP (free lipase from Candida rugosa), Lipozyme RM IM (immobilized lipase from Rhizomucor miehei) and Novozym 435 (immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica) were evaluated as catalysts in the production of biolubricant base oils. This was accomplished via the esterification of free fatty acids obtained from soybean-oil hydrolysis and different polyols (neopentyl glycol, NPG; trimethylolpropane, TMP; and pentaerythritol, PE). Reactions carried out with free C. rugosa lipase showed the highest conversions for the three polyols (97% for NPG, 100% for TMP and 55% for PE) after 24 h, while Novozym 435 and Lipozyme RM IM resulted, respectively, in 65% and 92% for NPG, 15% and 39% for TMP and 1% and 0% for PE. Then, Accurel MP1000 (a microporous polypropylene support, PP) was used to immobilize the C. rugosa lipase; enzyme loading used was 0.3 mg/g. The zymography analysis showed that the protein band of 60 KDa present in the C. rugosa lipase extract was the main protein responsible for the extract activity in the biolubricant synthesis and it was successfully immobilized onto the support. The immobilized lipase (34MDP-PP) showed conversions of 99% for NPG and 92% for TMP, after 24 h of reaction, maintaining the results obtained with the free enzyme. The 34MDP-PP could be reused for six consecutive reaction cycles without a reduction in the final conversion, using NPG and TMP as substrates. Using Lipozyme RM IM, the conversion decreased from 92 to 56% after six consecutive reactions. The soybean esters of NPG and TMP showed good viscosity indexes, higher than 200.

The Production of Polyhydroxybutyrate by Two-Step Fermentation and the Application of Polyhydroxybutyrate as a Novel Substrate for a Biolubricant

Two-step fermentation was utilized to increase PHB production. Cupriavidus necator was firstly cultivated in molasses medium for 144 h. Afterward, cells were recovered and extracted for PHB. The highest biomass (2.10 g/L) and PHB (62.38% of DCW) were obtained in the first reactor after 108 h of incubation. Filtrate after cell recovery were overflowed to the second reactor. Filtrate after cell recovery contained sugar and organic acids. Therefore, it was suitable to be re-utilized as substrate for PHB. In the second reactor, 10% of C. necator was inoculated and incubated for 120 h. The highest biomass (1.67 g/L) and PHB (67.66% of DCW) were achieved after 96 h of incubation. PHB was further utilized as substrate for biolubricant. The production of biolubricant involved a two-stage transesterification. The biolubricant from PHB passed the ISO VG-15 commercial standards for hydraulic systems and many other industrial applications.

High-Purity Fatty Acid n-Octyl Esters from Housefly (Musca domestica L.) Larval Lipids, a Potential New Biolubricant Source

With the cost of traditional lipid feedstocks constituting 70% of the total cost of biolubricant production, it is urgent to find a new lipid source for the biodiesel and biolubricant industry. With the elevated acid value (61.8 mg of KOH/g) of housefly larval lipids, converting the free fatty acid (FFA) into a biolubricant could serve as a value-added approach to the larval diesel industry, other than pretreatment by acid-catalyzed esterification for biodiesel production. This study developed a method of producing high-purity fatty acid n-octyl esters (FAOEs) from housefly (Musca domestica L.) larvae. The housefly larva free fatty acids (HLFFAs) from the larva lipids were obtained by wipe-film short-path distillation. FAOEs were produced by esterifying n-octanol with HLFFAs (catalyzed by benzenesulfonic acid under the following conditions: catalyst loading, 2 wt %; molar ratio of n-octanol to FFA, 3:1; temperature, 100 °C; time, 2 h). Excess n-octanol was effectively removed by high-vacuum (80 Pa) distil...