Biological Research Laboratories Research Articles

Production and Targeting of Monovalent Quantum Dots

The multivalent nature of commercial quantum dots (QDs) and the difficulties associated with producing monovalent dots have limited their applications in biology, where clustering and the spatial organization of biomolecules is often the object of study. We describe here a protocol to produce monovalent quantum dots (mQDs) that can be accomplished in most biological research laboratories via a simple mixing of CdSe/ZnS core/shell QDs with phosphorothioate DNA (ptDNA) of defined length. After a single ptDNA strand has wrapped the QD, additional strands are excluded from the surface. Production of mQDs in this manner can be accomplished at small and large scale, with commercial reagents, and in minimal steps. These mQDs can be specifically directed to biological targets by hybridization to a complementary single stranded targeting DNA. We demonstrate the use of these mQDs as imaging probes by labeling SNAP-tagged Notch receptors on live mammalian cells, targeted by mQDs bearing a benzylguanine moiety.

Production and targeting of monovalent quantum dots.

The multivalent nature of commercial quantum dots (QDs) and the difficulties associated with producing monovalent dots have limited their applications in biology, where clustering and the spatial organization of biomolecules is often the object of study. We describe here a protocol to produce monovalent quantum dots (mQDs) that can be accomplished in most biological research laboratories via a simple mixing of CdSe/ZnS core/shell QDs with phosphorothioate DNA (ptDNA) of defined length. After a single ptDNA strand has wrapped the QD, additional strands are excluded from the surface. Production of mQDs in this manner can be accomplished at small and large scale, with commercial reagents, and in minimal steps. These mQDs can be specifically directed to biological targets by hybridization to a complementary single stranded targeting DNA. We demonstrate the use of these mQDs as imaging probes by labeling SNAP-tagged Notch receptors on live mammalian cells, targeted by mQDs bearing a benzylguanine moiety.

Optimizing Data Collection in the Home Lab

Many of the projects currently under investigation in biological research labs focus on macromolecules that are difficult to crystallize such as: complexes, multi-domain and membrane proteins. Typically, crystallization trials can produce small, weakly diffracting crystals that may also have other challenging attributes. Recent hardware and software developments have improved in-house data quality on a wide range of samples. Small and highly focused x-ray beams allow one to select the best diffracting portion of a larger crystal and reduce background scatter for much smaller samples. Shutterless data collection helps to reduce instrument error resulting from shutter jitter and allows fine slicing of data runs without frame to frame dead time penalties while the practice of dealing with multiple, cracked or twinned crystals has improved greatly due to software enhancements. Results from in-house data collection including: shutterless operation, optimization of crystal orientation and collection parameters will be discussed.

Development of PCR methods and their applications in oncological research and practice

Since its discovery, PCR has become a conventional method of molecular biology research laboratories and an indispensable tool in diagnostic medicine. Multiple variants of the PCR technique were developed, which enable the analysis of different bio-logical materials at different amounts and reaction conditions. This article briefly summarizes the PCR approaches and points out their applications in oncological research and practice.

Bioinformatics Curriculum Guidelines: Toward a Definition of Core Competencies

Rapid advances in the life sciences and in related information technologies necessitate the ongoing refinement of bioinformatics educational programs in order to maintain their relevance. As the discipline of bioinformatics and computational biology expands and matures, it is important to characterize the elements that contribute to the success of professionals in this field. These individuals work in a wide variety of settings, including bioinformatics core facilities, biological and medical research laboratories, software development organizations, pharmaceutical and instrument development companies, and institutions that provide education, service, and training. In response to this need, the Curriculum Task Force of the International Society for Computational Biology (ISCB) Education Committee seeks to define curricular guidelines for those who train and educate bioinformaticians. The previous report of the task force summarized a survey that was conducted to gather input regarding the skill set needed by bioinformaticians [1]. The current article details a subsequent effort, wherein the task force broadened its perspectives by examining bioinformatics career opportunities, surveying directors of bioinformatics core facilities, and reviewing bioinformatics education programs. The bioinformatics literature provides valuable perspectives on bioinformatics education by defining skill sets needed by bioinformaticians, presenting approaches for providing informatics training to biologists, and discussing the roles of bioinformatics core facilities in training and education. The skill sets required for success in the field of bioinformatics are considered by several authors: Altman [2] defines five broad areas of competency and lists key technologies; Ranganathan [3] presents highlights from the Workshops on Education in Bioinformatics, discussing challenges and possible solutions; Yale's interdepartmental PhD program in computational biology and bioinformatics is described in [4], which lists the general areas of knowledge of bioinformatics; in a related article, a graduate of Yale's PhD program reflects on the skills needed by a bioinformatician [5]; Altman and Klein [6] describe the Stanford Biomedical Informatics (BMI) Training Program, presenting observed trends among BMI students; the American Medical Informatics Association defines competencies in the related field of biomedical informatics in [7]; and the approaches used in several German universities to implement bioinformatics education are described in [8]. Several approaches to providing bioinformatics training for biologists are described in the literature. Tan et al. [9] report on workshops conducted to identify a minimum skill set for biologists to be able to address the informatics challenges of the “-omics” era. They define a requisite skill set by analyzing responses to questions about the knowledge, skills, and abilities that biologists should possess. The authors in [10] present examples of strategies and methods for incorporating bioinformatics content into undergraduate life sciences curricula. Pevzner and Shamir [11] propose that undergraduate biology curricula should contain an additional course, “Algorithmic, Mathematical, and Statistical Concepts in Biology.” Wingren and Botstein [12] present a graduate course in quantitative biology that is based on original, pathbreaking papers in diverse areas of biology. Johnson and Friedman [13] evaluate the effectiveness of incorporating biological informatics into a clinical informatics program. The results reported are based on interviews of four students and informal assessments of bioinformatics faculty. The challenges and opportunities relevant to training and education in the context of bioinformatics core facilities are discussed by Lewitter et al. [14]. Relatedly, Lewitter and Rebhan [15] provide guidance regarding the role of a bioinformatics core facility in hiring biologists and in furthering their education in bioinformatics. Richter and Sexton [16] describe a need for highly trained bioinformaticians in core facilities and provide a list of requisite skills. Similarly, Kallioniemi et al. [17] highlight the roles of bioinformatics core units in education and training. This manuscript expands the body of knowledge pertaining to bioinformatics curriculum guidelines by presenting the results from a broad set of surveys (of core facility directors, of career opportunities, and of existing curricula). Although there is some overlap in the findings of the surveys, they are reported separately, in order to avoid masking the unique aspects of each of the perspectives and to demonstrate that the same themes arise, even when different perspectives are considered. The authors derive from their surveys an initial set of core competencies and relate the competencies to three different categories of professions that have a need for bioinformatics training.

Azamacrocycle Complexes: Synthesis and Xanthine Oxidase and Antioxidant Activity

Aims: Gout is caused by high uric acid in the blood that leads to excess uric acid crystallizing in the joints causing swelling and pain. Uric acid is produced from the breakdown of the purine which is released when cells die or introduced from the food we eat. The enzyme that helps in breakdown of purine to uric acid is xanthine oxidase (XO). Since XO makes the conversion of purine into uric acid happen, preventing its activity results to slow down of uric acid production. Such is the role of xanthine oxidase inhibitors (XOI). In this context we aimed to synthesize new complex which can be potent towards XOI and antioxidant properties.Study Design: Based on the literature we have designed azamacrocyclic complexes for advanced biological applications.Place and Duration of Study: Department of Chemistry, Research Laboratory, Yuvaraj’s College, University of Mysore, Mysore for synthesis and for biological activities Mahajana Life Science Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Microbiology and Biochemistry. June 2012-may 2013.Methodology: The macrocyclic metal complexes were synthesized by the template condensation of diamine and formaldehyde in MeOH. After stirring for 10 min a solution of 1, 4-diaminobutane, metallic salt and 2, 4-pentanedione in MeOH was added and the resulting mixture was refluxed.Results: Macrocylic metal complexes containing phenylene bridges have been synthesized and subjected to biological activities. Among the four synthesized complexes (3a-3d), 3d exhibited 83.2% of XO inhibition and also showed potent antioxidant activity. The same was also evident from structure activity relationship with atomic contact energy values of -285.78 compared to allopurinol with -200.02.Conclusion: From the present study, we infer that, aza macrocyclic metal complexes could lead to the development of newer therapeutics for gout and other inflammatory diseases which are caused by oxidative stress.

A simple microfluidic dispenser for single-microparticle and cell samples

Non-destructive isolation of single-cells has become an important need for many biology research laboratories; however, there is a lack of easily employed and inexpensive tools. Here, we present a single-particle sample delivery approach fabricated from simple, economical components that may address this need. In this, we employ unique flow and timing strategies to bridge the significant force and length scale differences inherent in transitioning from single particle isolation to delivery. Demonstrating this approach, we use an optical trap to isolate individual microparticles and red blood cells that are dispensed within separate 50 μl droplets off a microfluidic chip for collection into microscope slides or microtiter plates.

164 Cancer incidence in a cohort of biology research laboratory workers in the Netherlands

ObjectivesResearch laboratory personnel is exposed to a wide variety of carcinogenic agents. The link between biological research work and a possible increased cancer risk has been studied in several European...

Promoting Science Outdoor Activities for Elementary School Children: Contributions from a research laboratory

The purposes of the study were to analyse the promotion of scientific literacy through practical research activities and to identify children's conceptions about scientists and how they do science. Elementary school children were engaged in two scientific experiments in a marine biology research laboratory. A total of 136 students answered a questionnaire about their previous habits towards science and carried out the following actions: (1) a guided visit to the laboratory, (2) a brief presentation of the research theme, (3) the development of two experiments, and (4) a questionnaire about the experiments and science conceptions. The research methods included observation, document analysis, and content analysis of the answers to the questionnaires. Additionally, each visit was video recorded in order to design learning materials. The results revealed that most of the pupils were able to follow every stage of experimentation. However, some of them misinterpreted results and conclusions. One implication of the study is that this type of outdoor activity is extremely important to promote meaningful science learning in children, but more care should be taken in practical science activities so that children can overcome some common difficulties when performing scientific inquiry.

Advanced optical trapping by complex beam shaping

AbstractOptical tweezers, a simple and robust implementation of optical micromanipulation technologies, have become a standard tool in biological, medical and physics research laboratories. Recently, with the utilization of holographic beam shaping techniques, more sophisticated trapping configurations have been realized to overcome current challenges in applications. Holographically generated higher‐order light modes, for example, can induce highly structured and ordered three‐dimensional optical potential landscapes with promising applications in optically guided assembly, transfer of orbital angular momentum, or acceleration of particles along defined trajectories. The non‐diffracting property of particular light modes enables the optical manipulation in multiple planes or the creation of axially extended particle structures. Alongside with these concepts which rely on direct interaction of the light field with particles, two promising adjacent approaches tackle fundamental limitations by utilizing non‐optical forces which are, however, induced by optical light fields. Optoelectronic tweezers take advantage of dielectrophoretic forces for adaptive and flexible, massively parallel trapping. Photophoretic trapping makes use of thermal forces and by this means is perfectly suited for trapping absorbing particles. Hence the possibility to tailor light fields holographically, combined with the complementary dielectrophoretic and photophoretic trapping provides a holistic approach to the majority of optical micromanipulation scenarios.

Identification and Characterization of a Novel Chemotype MEK Inhibitor Able to Alter the Phosphorylation State of MEK1/2

A small molecule compound, JTP-74057/GSK1120212/trametinib, had been discovered as a very potent antiproliferative agent able to induce the accumulation of CDK inhibitor p15INK4b. To conduct its drug development rationally as an anticancer agent, molecular targets of this compound were identified as MEK1/2 using compound-affinity chromatography. It was shown that JTP-74057 directly bound to MEK1 and MEK2 and allosterically inhibited their kinase activities, and that its inhibitory characteristics were similar to those of the known and different chemotype of MEK inhibitors PD0325901 and U0126. It was further shown that JTP-74057 induced rapid and sustained dephosphorylation of phosphorylated MEK in HT-29 colon and other cancer cell lines, while this decrease in phosphorylated MEK was not observed in PD0325901-treated cancer cells. Physicochemical analyses revealed that JTP-74057 preferentially binds to unphosphorylated MEK (u-MEK) in unique characteristics of both high affinity based on extremely low dissociation rates and ability stabilizing u-MEK with high thermal shift, which were markedly different from PD0325901. These findings indicate that JTP-74057 is a novel MEK inhibitor able to sustain MEK to be an unphosphorylated form resulting in pronounced suppression of the downstream signaling pathways involved in cellular proliferation.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in medical and biological research labs for a variety of applications. There are three major steps involved in the PCR technique: denaturation, annealing and extension. PCR is useful in the investigation and diagnosis of a growing number of diseases. PCR is also used in forensics laboratories. PCR can identify genes that have been implicated in the development of cancer. The present paper is an attempt to review basics of PCR in relation to its methods, application and use.

Rapid microwave-assisted synthesis of dextran-coated iron oxide nanoparticles for magnetic resonance imaging

Currently, magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are the only nanosized magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents approved for clinical use, yet commercial manufacturing of these agents has been limited or discontinued. Though there is still widespread demand for these particles both for clinical use and research, they are difficult to obtain commercially, and complicated syntheses make in-house preparation unfeasible for most biological research labs or clinics. To make commercial production viable and increase accessibility of these products, it is crucial to develop simple, rapid and reproducible preparations of biocompatible iron oxide nanoparticles. Here, we report a rapid, straightforward microwave-assisted synthesis of superparamagnetic dextran-coated iron oxide nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were produced in two hydrodynamic sizes with differing core morphologies by varying the synthetic method as either a two-step or single-step process. A striking benefit of these methods is the ability to obtain swift and consistent results without the necessity for air-, pH- or temperature-sensitive techniques; therefore, reaction times and complex manufacturing processes are greatly reduced as compared to conventional synthetic methods. This is a great benefit for cost-effective translation to commercial production. The nanoparticles are found to be superparamagnetic and exhibit properties consistent for use in MRI. In addition, the dextran coating imparts the water solubility and biocompatibility necessary for in vivo utilization.

Morphometric-stereological and functional epididymal alterations and a decrease in fertility in rats treated with finasteride and after a 30-day post-treatment recovery period

To evaluate morphometric-stereological changes in the epididymal caput, sperm quality, and fertility parameters in rats treated with finasteride and after a 30-day post-treatment recovery period. Experimental study in a research laboratory. Reproductive biology research laboratory. Male and female Sprague Dawley rats. Treatment with finasteride (5 mg/kg/day) for 56 days followed by 30 days without treatment. Serum hormone analyses, morphometric-stereological and ultrastructural evaluation of the epididymal caput, sperm transit time, natural mating, in utero insemination, sperm membrane integrity, and fertility parameters. Serum dihydrotestosterone levels in the finasteride group decreased by ~40% compared with that of control rats. Ultrastructural analysis revealed significant reductions in several morphometric-stereological parameters of the epididymal caput. All parameters recovered significantly in the post-treatment period. There was no alteration in daily sperm production in the finasteride group. However, significant reductions in sperm transit time, motility, sperm membrane integrity, and fertility parameters were observed in rats treated with finasteride. Treatment with finasteride caused morphometric-stereological and functional changes in the epididymis and in sperm function that led to a reduction in fertility parameters. A 30-day post-treatment recovery period was insufficient to restore normal sperm motility, sperm transit time, and some fertility parameters.

PGLO mutagenesis: A laboratory procedure in molecular biology for biology students

A five-session laboratory project was designed to familiarize or increase the laboratory proficiency of biology students and others with techniques and instruments commonly used in molecular biology research laboratories and industries. In this project, the EZ-Tn5 transposon is used to generate and screen a large number of cells transformed with mutagenized pGLO plasmid. EZ-Tn5 carries the kanamycin resistance (Kan(R)) gene, and the pGLO plasmid carries the β-lactamase gene for ampicillin resistance (Amp(R)), the gene encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the arabinose operon repressor (araC). Insertion of the Tn5 transposon into pGLO occurs randomly, and any gene into which it inserts is knocked out. By screening cells transformed with mutagenized pGLO with kanamycin, ampicillin, arabinose and/or for GFP expression in different combinations, pGLO plasmids with mutations in different genes are identified. The locations of these insertions are then mapped approximately by restriction fragment analysis and precisely by sequence analysis of the pGLO plasmid.

POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION: METHODS, PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in medical and biological research labs for a variety of applications. There are three major steps involved in the PCR technique: denaturation, annealing, and extension. PCR is useful in the investigation and diagnosis of a growing number of diseases. Qualitative PCR can be used to detect not only human genes but also genes of bacteria and viruses. PCR is also used in forensics laboratories and is especially useful because only a tiny amount of original DNA is required. PCR can identify genes that have been implicated in the development of cancer. Molecular cloning has benefited from the emergence of PCR as a technique. The present paper is an attempt to review basics of PCR.

Modern dosimetric tools for 60Co irradiation at high containment laboratories

Purpose: To evaluate an innovative photo-fluorescent film as a routine dosimetric tool during 60Co irradiations at a high containment biological research laboratory, and to investigate whether manufacturer-provided chamber exposure rates can be used to accurately administer a prescribed dose to biological specimens.Materials and methods: Photo-fluorescent, lithium fluoride film dosimeters and National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST) transfer dosimeters were co-located in a self-shielded 60Co irradiator and exposed to γ-radiation with doses ranging from 5–85 kGy. Film dose-response relationships were developed for varying temperatures simulating conditions present when irradiating infectious biological specimens. Dose measurement results from NIST transfer dosimeters were compared to doses predicted using manufacturer-provided irradiator chamber exposure rates.Results: The film dosimeter exhibited a photo-fluorescent response signal that was consistent and nearly linear in relationship to γ-radiation exposure over a wide dose range. The dosimeter response also showed negligible effects from dose fractionization and humidity. Significant disparities existed between manufacturer-provided chamber exposure rates and actual doses administered.Conclusion: This study demonstrates the merit of utilizing dosimetric tools to validate the process of exposing dangerous and exotic biological agents to γ-radiation at high containment laboratories. The film dosimeter used in this study can be utilized to eliminate potential for improperly administering γ-radiation doses.

Automatic segmentation of adherent biological cell boundaries and nuclei from brightfield microscopy images

The detection and segmentation of adherent eukaryotic cells from brightfield microscopy images represent challenging tasks in the image analysis field. This paper presents a free and open-source image analysis package which fully automates the tasks of cell detection, cell boundary segmentation, and nucleus segmentation in brightfield images. The package also performs image registration between brightfield and fluorescence images. The algorithms were evaluated on a variety of biological cell lines and compared against manual and fluorescence-based ground truths. When tested on HT1080 and HeLa cells, the cell detection step was able to correctly identify over 80% of cells, whilst the cell boundary segmentation step was able to segment over 75% of the cell body pixels, and the nucleus segmentation step was able to correctly identify nuclei in over 75% of the cells. The algorithms for cell detection and nucleus segmentation are novel to the field, whilst the cell boundary segmentation algorithm is contrast-invariant, which makes it more robust on these low-contrast images. Together, this suite of algorithms permit brightfield microscopy image processing without the need for additional fluorescence images. Finally our sephaCe application, which is available at http://www.sephace.com, provides a novel method for integrating these methods with any motorised microscope, thus facilitating the adoption of these techniques in biological research labs.

A new method for the rapid determination of azovan blue leaked into the skin.

Journal Article A new method for the rapid determination of azovan blue leaked into the skin Get access K Shimomura, K Shimomura Biological Research Laboratories, Tamabe Seiyaku Co. Ltd., Higashiyodogawa-ku, Osaka, Japan Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar T Fukushima T Fukushima Biological Research Laboratories, Tamabe Seiyaku Co. Ltd., Higashiyodogawa-ku, Osaka, Japan Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Volume 24, Issue 10, October 1972, Pages 837–838, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-7158.1972.tb08899.x Published: 12 April 2011 Article history Received: 20 April 1972 Published: 12 April 2011

In vitro method for a stable activation of a single neuron by synaptic envelope stimulation

Event Abstract Back to Event In vitro method for a stable activation of a single neuron by synaptic envelope stimulation Sebastian Reinartz1, 2*, Avner Wallach1, 3, Elise Gehring3 and Shimon Marom1, 2 1 Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Network Biology Research Laboratories, Lorry Lokey Interdisciplinary Center for Life Sciences and Engineering, Israel 2 Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Israel 3 Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Israel Focal extracellular electrical stimulation of cultured cortical networks (CCNs) growing on micro-electrode-arrays (MEAs) gives rise to two different types of early (<15 ms) neuronal responses: (i) Extremely reliable spikes with high temporal precision (jitter <0.1 ms) that were described previously to be generated by direct stimulation of the neuronal machinery of membrane excitability (“directly evoked spikes”), and (ii) fairly reliable yet temporally imprecise (jitter ca. 1 ms) responses, the “synaptically evoked spikes”. Here we show that these latter spikes are synaptically mediated responses. Unlike direct responses, early synaptically activated spikes are modified by application of synaptic blockers. Response latency and jitter increases with blocker concentration, leading to gradually decreasing response probability and, eventually, complete abolishment of responses. Hence, changes in the synaptic population input are expressed in the response latency as well as the response probability of these neurons. The response characteristics to different stimulation amplitudes and frequencies provide further insight into synaptic population dynamics. Unlike directly evoked spikes, the response latency of synaptically mediated spikes decreases with increasing stimulation amplitude, probably due to stronger activation of the synaptic population. This offers a way to distinguish between direct and synaptically evoked responses without pharmacological intervention. With the objective to demonstrate the potential of this experimental approach for describing interactions between multi-synaptic input and the responding neuron, we employed a standard short-term plasticity protocol. Paired-pulse stimulation with amplitudes below threshold revealed up to threefold magnification of the response probability, comparing first and second responses. Furthermore, we successfully applied the Neuronal Response Clamp, a closed loop method that maintains stable various response features; we used that method to expose fluctuations in synaptic envelop threshold over extended timescales. The methods described offer a tool to monitor long-term response fluctuations and plasticity of a complete (lumped) elementary functional unit that includes the synapses activating a given neuron, its dendritic arborization and its somatic integration. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge Danni Dagan, Asaf Gal, Danny Eytan, Ron Meir, Jacki Schiller, Itsik Schiller and Edi Barkai for helpful discussions and Eleonora Lyakhov, Vladimir Lyakhov and Leonid Odessky for technical assistance in conducting the experiments. Keywords: closed-loop, Neuron, paired pulse stimulation, synaptic envelope, threshold Conference: BC11 : Computational Neuroscience & Neurotechnology Bernstein Conference & Neurex Annual Meeting 2011, Freiburg, Germany, 4 Oct - 6 Oct, 2011. Presentation Type: Poster Topic: neurotechnology and brain-machine interface (please use "neurotechnology and brain-machine interface" as keyword) Citation: Reinartz S, Wallach A, Gehring E and Marom S (2011). In vitro method for a stable activation of a single neuron by synaptic envelope stimulation. Front. Comput. Neurosci. Conference Abstract: BC11 : Computational Neuroscience & Neurotechnology Bernstein Conference & Neurex Annual Meeting 2011. doi: 10.3389/conf.fncom.2011.53.00156 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 22 Aug 2011; Published Online: 04 Oct 2011. * Correspondence: Mr. Sebastian Reinartz, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Network Biology Research Laboratories, Lorry Lokey Interdisciplinary Center for Life Sciences and Engineering, Haifa, Israel, reinartz.sebastian@gmail.com Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Sebastian Reinartz Avner Wallach Elise Gehring Shimon Marom Google Sebastian Reinartz Avner Wallach Elise Gehring Shimon Marom Google Scholar Sebastian Reinartz Avner Wallach Elise Gehring Shimon Marom PubMed Sebastian Reinartz Avner Wallach Elise Gehring Shimon Marom Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.