Biological Soil Crusts Research Articles

Monitoring rainfall events in desert areas using the spectral response of biological soil crusts to hydration: Evidence from the Gurbantunggut Desert, China

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are essential biotic components in desert ecosystems, yet they are vulnerable to climate change, especially changes in precipitation. Unfortunately, the scarcity and unreliable performance of mainstream precipitation products in desert regions has prevented further research on the responses of desert ecosystems to climate change scenarios. By taking advantage of the spectral sensitivity of biocrusts to hydration, this study aims to examine the potential to monitor rainfall events using the spectral response of biocrusts. First, BRDF harmonization enhanced the rainfall-induced spectral response. Then, a detectability analysis was performed to clarify how influential factors affect the spectral response. Finally, a random forest (RF) model was developed to derive the temporal dynamic and spatial pattern of detectable rainfall events. The results show that rainfall events induce significant changes in biocrust spectra, especially within some spectral bands (i.e., SWIR, Red, and Blue) and indices (i.e., BSCI and NDVI). A rainfall event is detectable if the precipitation amount is >6 mm and recorded by satellites within 24 h. The RF model performs better (F1 score = 0.78) than the mainstream precipitation products (F1 score between 0.19 and 0.52) in temporal monitoring. Additionally, the model can delineate the spatial pattern of rainfall events well. These findings imply that this phenomenon has great potential for application in rainfall monitoring in desert areas, which could greatly contribute to understanding the mechanisms of desert ecological processes on a large scale.

Diversity of diatoms in biological soil crusts of the northern region of the Urals on the basis of morphological and metagenomic approaches

We studied the diversity of diatoms in biological soil crusts which formed on cryogenic soils in the mountain tundras of the Polar, Subpolar and Northern Urals. We used the permanent Elyashev's medium and DNA metabarcoding for diatom species diversity. In total, 58 diatoms taxa (rank below the genus) identified based on morphological and metagenomic data analysis. The most diverse genera are Pinnularia, Eunotia, and Nitzschia.

Variation of bacterial communities and their driving factors in different types of biological soil crusts in Mu Us sandy land

Variation of bacterial communities and their driving factors in different types of biological soil crusts in Mu Us sandy land

Variations of Soil Cyanobacteria Communities Accompanied by Different Habitat Types in Abandoned Ion-Absorbed Rare Earth Tailings

Soil fertility declined, companied with the poor capacity of water holding, after rare earth mining for a long time, mine tailings remediation produced in conventional rare earth elements REEs exploitation are currently urgent issues. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic oxygenic phototrophs, played a vital role in the biogeochemical cycling of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N), reducing soil loss, are the pioneer organisms of biological soil crusts BSCs. However, studies on cyanobacteria inoculation in abandoned ionic rare earth mines were still insufficient. The abundance and composition of microorganisms in the topsoil of abandoned ionic rare earth mines were analyzed using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA V4 gene in this study. Fifteen samples were selected in and around rare earth mine tailings based on five different habitat types to assess the difference of main bacteria component and the dominant cyanobacteria caused by environmental factors. A total of 713,057 effective 16S rRNA genes were classified into 30 bacteria phyla, and 7 cyanobacterial genera were determined in phyla of Cyanobacteria. Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Planctomycetes, and Cyanobacteria were dominant groups in all samples (>5% of total effective sequences). Only Microcoleus, Leptolyngbya, Microcystis, Stigonema, Chroococcidiopsis, Phormidium, and Lyngbya were determined in rare earth mine tailings. Leptolyngbya was wildly distributed in rare earth tailings except for natural woodland, while Microcoleus was found in all of the studying areas in this study. Mining activities could cause the amount of unknown cyanobacteria specie pnr_Chloroplast abnormal. Additionally, results showed that cyanobacteria community composition was not correlated with soil organic matter SOM, but cyanobacteria richness and diversity were limited by the high content of ammonia nitrogen, and Leptolyngbya and Microcoleus could apply to abandoned ion-absorbed rare earth mining tailings repairment.

Successional Development of the Phototrophic Community in Biological Soil Crusts on Coastal and Inland Dunes.

(1) Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are microecosystems consisting of prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms growing on the topsoil. This study aims to characterize changes in the community structure of biocrust phototrophic organisms along a dune chronosequence in the Baltic Sea compared to an inland dune in northern Germany. (2) A vegetation survey followed by species determination and sediment analyses were conducted. (3) The results highlight a varying phototrophic community composition within the biocrusts regarding the different successional stages of the dunes. At both study sites, a shift from algae-dominated to lichen- and moss-dominated biocrusts in later successional dune types was observed. The algae community of both study sites shared 50% of the identified species while the moss and lichen community shared less than 15%. This indicates a more generalized occurrence of the algal taxa along both chronosequences. The mosses and lichens showed a habitat-specific species community. Moreover, an increase in the organic matter and moisture content with advanced biocrust development was detected. The enrichment of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in the different biocrust types showed a similar relationship. (4) This relation can be explained by biomass growth and potential nutrient mobilization by the microorganisms. Hence, the observed biocrust development potentially enhanced soil formation and contributed to nutrient accumulation.

Soil–Plant–Microbe Interactions Determine Soil Biological Fertility by Altering Rhizospheric Nutrient Cycling and Biocrust Formation

Understanding soil–plant–microbe inter- and intra- interactions are essential for ensuring proper soil health, quality, and soil-mediated ecosystem services (e.g., nutrient cycling) required for human–plant–animal life. Intensive and unsustainable farming practices can decrease soil microbial biodiversity, fertility, and quality leading to soil degradation, impaired nutrient cycling, and the incapability of soil to support plant growth. Under such a context, soil biological fertility can appear as a regenerative component that has the potential to harmonize and improve soil’s physical, chemical, and biological parameters. This study defines and discusses the microbiome in the rhizosphere, microbial nutrient cycling, and biological soil crusts as the major components of soil biological fertility, and explores the answers to the following questions: (i) how does the rhizosphere promote plant growth, development, and nutrient cycling through soil microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi)? (ii) How can soil microorganisms regulate macronutrient cycling and facilitate biocrust formation? This review reveals that soil biological fertility is crucial for increasing crop resilience and productivity as well as sustainability in agriculture. Additionally, the reintroduction of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, a quantitative estimation of the root exudate’s composition, identifying the spatiotemporal dynamics of potassium solubilizing bacteria and establishing biological soil crusts in agricultural lands remain the major tasks for improving soil biological fertility and the transition towards regenerative agriculture.

The effect of different biocrusts on soil hydraulic properties in the Tengger Desert, China

Water redistribution profoundly affects the dryland ecosystem’s function. Biological soil crusts (BSCs or biocrusts), which cover a large part of soil surface in arid land, significantly affect the water redistribution, but the results are conflicting at regional scale. In this study, the effects of different biocrusts on soil hydraulic properties, including soil water retention curve, soil water sorptivity, soil hydrophobicity and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, were clarified in Tengger Desert. The results showed that the presence of BSCs significantly changed soil hydraulic properties. Compared to sand, BSCs increased water holding capacity and soil hydrophobicity, and decreased soil water sorptivity and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. The enrichment of fine particles during the change from the less to the more developed BSCs contributed to the enhancement of water holding capacity, but this effect was mainly limited at 3-cm layer of soil underneath the ground surface. Soil hydrophobicity decreased with crust development, which contributed to the increase of soil water sorptivity. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity decreased during the change from the less to the more developed BSCs, which exerted some negative effect on water infiltration. Our results highlight the important role of BSCs in hydraulic properties, and consideration of biocrusts and its hydrological behavior could help us better understand the distribution, movement and retention of soil water in this area.

Extracellular polymeric substances from soil-grown bacteria delay evaporative drying

When soils dry, water flow and nutrient diffusion cease as the hydraulic microenvironments vital for soil life become fragmented. To delay soil drying locally and related adverse effects, bacteria and plants modify their surroundings by releasing extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). As a result, the physical properties of hotspots like biological soil crusts or the rhizosphere differ from those of the surrounding bulk soil. Specifically, the presence of EPS delays evaporative soil drying. Despite the evidence of reduced evaporation from EPS-amended soils, the mechanisms controlling soil water content dynamics remain elusive. Thus, our study aimed to elucidate the potential of bacteria to modify their local environment when exposed to oscillations in soil water content induced by evaporative drying. We incubated sand microcosms with two contrasting strains of Bacillus subtilis for one week in a flow cabinet. At the end of the incubation period, local water loss was quantified and spatially resolved using time-series neutron radiography. Strain NCIB 3610, a complex biofilm producer steadily modified soil evaporation dynamics during the incubation period resulting in a substantial delay in soil drying due to hydraulic decoupling of the evaporation front from the soil surface. Evaporation dynamics remained largely unaltered in the microcosms inoculated with the domesticated strain 168 trp+ compared to the control treatment. The mechanism of hydraulic decoupling induced by NCIB 3610 was verified by estimates of diffusive fluxes and the position of the evaporation plane in the microcosm. Additionally, the role of polymeric substances in hydraulic decoupling was confirmed by an evaporation experiment using xanthan as an EPS analogue.

Variations in organic carbon mineralization of the biological soil crusts following revegetation in the Tengger Desert, North China

Revegetation is an effective measure to combat desertification worldwide, which parallelly facilitates the colonization and development of biological soil crusts (BSCs), and thereby affecting C cycles of BSCs in desert regions. However, knowledge about soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization of BSCs and the involved mechanisms during long-term revegetation process in desert is rather limited. In this study, SOC mineralization rates of the mobile sand dune (MSD) and the BSCs in revegetated sites along chronosequence in the Tengger Desert were investigated, and the relationships between the SOC mineralization and the characteristics of vegetation and BSCs, soil properties and incubation temperature (T) and soil water content (SWC) were analyzed. The results showed that SOC mineralization rate of the BSCs and the corresponding subsoils was significantly greater than those of the MSD, and it increased considerably with increasing site age, regardless of the T, SWC, soil layer and sampling time (p < 0.001). The maximum instantaneous mineralization rates (MIR), cumulative CO2-C release (CCR) and the potentially mineralizable SOC (C0) of BSCs and subsoils were 1.29–12.63, 3.67–23.16 and 3.78–23.41 times, and 0.16–2.26, 0.12–1.84 and 0.17–1.26 times greater than those of the MSD, respectively; while the proportion of C0 to total SOC (C0/SOC) decreased by 31–88 % and 24–72 % in comparison with MSD, respectively. The mineralization rate increased with T and SWC, and the temperature sensitivity of BSCs increased with site age, indicating that the loss of SOC would be accelerated with the succession of BSCs upon the future global change. The variation magnitude of SOC mineralization was largely dependent on revegetation-induced changes in the properties of BSCs and the incubation T and SWC, and their interactions. The C:N, pH, and the activities of POD and PPO and DOC, and the coverage of moss-dominated crusts, SOC, C:N, the content of clay and silt and AYL activity were the main factors affecting SOC mineralization of BSCs and the subsoils, respectively. These results indicated that multiple factors that co-varied with the succession of BSCs led to variable SOC mineralization. Our findings suggested that planting xerophytic shrubs in desert drives the development and the SOC mineralization of BSCs, but decreased SOC loss due to mineralization, leading to SOC sequestration.

A research agenda for nonvascular photoautotrophs under climate change.

Nonvascular photoautotrophs (NVP), including bryophytes, lichens, terrestrial algae, and cyanobacteria, are increasingly recognized as being essential to ecosystem functioning in many regions of the world. Current research suggests that climate change may pose a substantial threat to NVP, but the extent to which this will affect the associated ecosystem functions and services is highly uncertain. Here, we propose a research agenda to address this urgent question, focusing on physiological and ecological processes that link NVP to ecosystem functions while also taking into account the substantial taxonomic diversity across multiple ecosystem types. Accordingly, we developed a new categorization scheme, based on microclimatic gradients, which simplifies the high physiological and morphological diversity of NVP and world-wide distribution with respect to several broad habitat types. We found that habitat-specific ecosystem functions of NVP will likely be substantially affected by climate change, and more quantitative process understanding is required on (1) potential for acclimation, (2) response to elevated CO2 , (3) role of the microbiome, and (4) feedback to (micro)climate. We suggest an integrative approach of innovative, multimethod laboratory and field experiments and ecophysiological modelling, for which sustained scientific collaboration on NVP research will be essential.

Biocrust-linked changes in soil aggregate stability along a climatic gradient in the Chilean Coastal Range

Abstract. Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) composed of cyanobacteria, bacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, and bryophytes stabilize the soil surface. This effect has mainly been studied in arid climates, where biocrusts constitute the main biological agent to stabilize and connect soil aggregates. Besides, biocrusts are an integral part of the soil surface under Mediterranean and humid climate conditions, mainly covering open spaces in forests and on denuded lands. They often develop after vegetation disturbances, when their ability to compete with vascular plants increases, acting as pioneer communities and affecting the stability of soil aggregates. To better understand how biocrusts mediate changes in soil aggregate stability under different climate conditions, we analyzed soil aggregate samples collected under biocrust communities from four national parks in Chile along a large climatic gradient ranging from (north to south) arid (Pan de Azúcar, PA), semi-arid (Santa Gracia, SG), Mediterranean (La Campana, LC) to humid (Nahuelbuta, NA). Biocrust communities showed a stabilizing effect on the soil aggregates in dry fractions for the three northern sites and the wet aggregates for the southernmost site. Here, permanent vascular plants and higher contents of organic carbon and nitrogen in the soil control aggregate stability more than biocrusts, which are in intense competition with higher plant communities. Moreover, we found an increase in stability for aggregate size classes &lt; 2.0 and 9.5–30.0 mm. The geometric mean diameter of the soil aggregates showed a clear effect due to the climatic gradient, indicating that the aggregate stability presents a log-normal instead of a normal distribution, with a trend of low change between aggregate size fractions. Based on our results, we assume that biocrusts affect the soil structure in all climates. Their role in aggregate stability is masked under humid conditions by higher vegetation and organic matter contents in the topsoil.

Using sUAV imagery to map litter of invasive annual grass in dry environmental conditions

Invasive annual grasses pose a severe threat to drylands of the United States by increasing habitat degradation and the occurrence and severity of wildfires, while simultaneously outcompeting native species. Advances in technology and accessibility of small uncrewed aerial vehicles (sUAV) provide the opportunity for small preserve managers to map and monitor plant invasions in critical habitats for rare and endemic plant species. Many remote sensing techniques rely on the invasive plants' different phenological signals to distinguish them from native plants and habitats. However, invasive annual grasses in the western United States have high variability of interannual productivity and may not green up each year. Therefore, our objective was to use an sUAV (quadcopter drone) to map invasive annual grass regardless of phenological stage in critical Mojave Desert habitat. The study locations were White Dome, a small habitat preserve, and Beehive Dome in Washington County UT, USA. These areas are critical habitats for several endangered and threatened plant species and are covered with sensitive biological soil crusts, making on-the-ground measurements destructive. Using imagery collected with an sUAV we created red, green, blue (RGB) orthomosaics and calculated the Visible Atmospherically Resistant Index (VARI) across these areas. We successfully mapped the litter of invasive annual grasses at one of the two sites. At White Dome, we attained 95.2 % and 84.3 % Producer's and User's Accuracy in mapping invasive annual grasses based on the RGB spectral signature of invasive grass litter. At Beehive Dome, the heterogeneous nature of the edaphic and topographical features made it difficult to accurately map (<20 %) using VARI and RGB alone. Here, we propose plans to increase accuracy in these dryland systems to be able to map invasive annual grasses regardless of year or environmental conditions.

Functional diversity of experimental annual plant assemblages drives plant responses to biological soil crusts in gypsum systems

Abstract Biological soil crusts (BSC) are complex biotic aggregates comprised of lichens, cyanobacteria, algae and other micro‐organism that are known to differently affect plant development along life cycle by selecting plant functional traits based on species‐specific effects. In addition, functional differences between interacting species should modulate their response ability to other environmental factors. Thus, it should be expected that the effects of the BSC on plants will be significantly determined by the own functional diversity in the community. To understand the multiple effects of BSC and the extent to which the functional diversity of interacting plant species can modulate their effects on the development of coexisting species, we applied an experimental approach by manipulating the initial functional diversity of the entire annual plant community and BSC conditions in a common garden trial. We crossed three sorts of assemblages built on the basis of plant stature (combinations of only large, or only small, or diverse sized plant species in pots) with three lichen‐dominated BSC disturbance scenarios (intact, or tiny mechanically disaggregated, or absent portions of BSC). BSC strongly affected the establishment and development of gypsophilous annual plants in a complex, multifaceted manner, which shifted throughout the plant life cycle. We demonstrated that lichen‐dominated BSC could act as a major physical barrier to the establishment of annual plants at a heterogeneous fine spatial scale. Such a restrictive effect was particularly marked in the presence of intact BSC. However, after annual plants overcame the restrictions imposed by BSC, the same biotic layer facilitated plant growth and fitness, regardless of its physical integrity, resulting in larger plants producing more fruits. Importantly, our results suggest that the functional diversity structure of the community may also drive growth and fitness of coexisting species by activating alternative coexistence mechanisms such as niche partitioning or competition symmetry. This study highlights the importance of plant neighbourhood features for the performance of interacting species, and confirms a novel, experimental way to explore the effects of community diversity on plants for the interpretation of assembly mechanisms. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

A comparative study of soil nutrient availability and enzyme activity under biological soil crusts in different erosion regions of the Loess Plateau, China

A comparative study of soil nutrient availability and enzyme activity under biological soil crusts in different erosion regions of the Loess Plateau, China

Environmental micro-niche filtering shapes bacterial pioneer communities during primary colonization of a Himalayas' glacier forefield.

The pedogenesis from the mineral substrate released upon glacier melting has been explained with the succession of consortia of pioneer microorganisms, whose structure and functionality are determined by the environmental conditions developing in the moraine. However, the microbiome variability that can be expected in the environmentally heterogeneous niches occurring in a moraine at a given successional stage is poorly investigated. In a 50 m2 area in the forefield of the Lobuche glacier (Himalayas, 5050 m above sea level), we studied six sites of primary colonization presenting different topographical features (orientation, elevation and slope) and harbouring greyish/dark biological soil crusts (BSCs). The spatial vicinity of the sites opposed to their topographical differences, allowed us to examine the effect of environmental conditions independently from the time of deglaciation. The bacterial microbiome diversity and their co-occurrence network, the bacterial metabolisms predicted from 16S rRNA gene high-throughput sequencing, and the microbiome intact polar lipids were investigated in the BSCs and the underlying sediment deep layers (DLs). Different bacterial microbiomes inhabited the BSCs and the DLs, and their composition varied among sites, indicating a niche-specific role of the micro-environmental conditions in the bacterial communities' assembly. In the heterogeneous sediments of glacier moraines, physico-chemical and micro-climatic variations at the site-spatial scale are crucial in shaping the microbiome microvariability and structuring the pioneer bacterial communities during pedogenesis.

Quantitative assessment of biocrust distribution patterns using landscape indices benefits the study of their soil conservation functions

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are widely distributed covers and show obvious differences in coverage, composition, and distribution patterns under field conditions. To date, it is still difficult to assess the ecological function of biocrusts in different distribution patterns due to challenges in quantitatively assessing their patterns. Landscape ecology inspired us to characterize and describe landscape distribution patterns through a series of indices. Accordingly, this study developed a method to quantitatively characterize the distribution pattern of biocrusts at the plot scale. Our results demonstrated that optimum grain size selection is important. The first inflection point determines the optimum grain size of 5 mm. Based on this grain size, four landscape indices were selected out of fifteen, including the percentage of the landscape (PLAND), edge density (ED), patch cohesion index (COHESION), and splitting index (SPLIT), which represented 91.6 % of the total distribution characteristic information of biocrusts within 58 squares of 1.5 × 1.5 m. The four landscape indices were validated for applicability by describing biocrust characteristics for various patterns, scales, and coverage levels both in the laboratory and field plots. This method for quantitatively assessing the distribution characteristics of biocrusts lays a foundation for the study of the relationship between the distribution pattern of biocrusts and ecological functions and processes.

Spatial self-segregation of pioneer cyanobacterial species drives microbiome organization in biocrusts

Microbial communities are typically characterized by some degree of self-organization. In biological soil crust (biocrust) communities, vertical organization of resident populations at the mm scale is driven by organismal adaptations to physicochemical microniches. However, the extent of horizontal organization and its driving processes are unknown. Using a combination of observational and genetic mapping, we provide evidence for a highly defined, horizontal self-organization (patchiness) at the mm to cm scale in a successionally early biocrust community dominated by the pioneer cyanobacteria, Microcoleus vaginatus (Microcoleaceae) and Parifilum sp. (Coleofasciculaceae). Experiments with representative isolates of each species demonstrate that the phenomenon is driven by active spatial segregation based on cross-species sensing through the exometabolome acted upon with motility responses. Further, we show that both species share the ability to enrich for specialized cyanospheres of heterotrophic bacteria at smaller scales, and that these cyanospheres are characterized by compositional host-specificity, thus expanding the reach of spatial patchiness beyond primary producers. Our results highlight the importance of specific microbial interactions in the emergence of microbiome compositional architecture and the enhancement of microbial diversity.

Protist Diversity Responses to Experimental N Deposition in Biological Crusts of a Semiarid Mediterranean Ecosystem

Biological soil crusts (BSC) are associations of different macro and microorganisms and aggregated soil particles located on the surface of soils in many different habitats. BSC harbour a diverse and complex community of ciliates and testate amoebae. These phagotrophic protists play an important role in C and N recycling in soil ecosystems but have not been frequently studied in BSC. In this context, the effects of three increasing N inputs on ciliates and testate amoebae in crusts from a semi-arid Mediterranean ecosystem were evaluated. A field experiment with artificial N-deposition was designed to mimic the effects caused by anthropogenic N depositions. The results have shown that the protist populations of these semi-arid Mediterranean environments have lower species richness than other soil environments. The increase in N produces a net loss of diversity in the populations studied and shifts in the community structure. It has also been shown that some ciliates and testate amoebae, due to their population responses to increased N concentrations, could potentially be used as bio-indicators of N contamination in these BSCs.

Hillslope Geodiversity Impact on Biocrusts’ Biogeochemical Functions

Geodiversity integrates physical parameters such as geological, geomorphological, and pedological components. It represents the abiotic diversity of the earth surface layer. It incorporates geological (bedrocks and mineral sediments), geomorphological (geography, land surface formations, physical processes), pedological (soils), and hydrological characteristics. Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) play an essential role in regulating the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nitrogen. Their ability is dependent on habitat conditions, composition, and cover percentage of the ground surface, all of which are affected by geodiversity. This study’s objective was to assess the effects of geodiversity on the biogeochemical functions of biocrusts by regulating the soil water dynamics and the subsequent impact on readily available nitrogen and carbon. Hillslope geodiversity is determined by the geodiversity found in the stone cover on the ground surface and in the stone content throughout the soil profile, as well as by the soil profile thickness of the underlying bedrock. We hypothesized that in dry environments, the physical conditions in high-geodiversity hillslopes, compared to low-geodiversity hillslopes, positively affect the soil water budget, which would affect the biocrusts and their readily available nitrogen and carbon. The results showed higher soil moisture content in the heterogeneous hillslopes. The ammonium and labile organic carbon in the biocrusts were more substantial in the heterogeneous than in the homogeneous hillslopes, while soil protein, nitrite, and soil organic matter were similar. We suggest that the comparatively high soil moisture content in the heterogeneous hillslopes stimulates biocrust community activities and increases the readily available nitrogen and carbon, thus improving the survival of shrubs in these ecosystems under long-term drought conditions.

BSC (biological soil crust) Method for soil erosion control and vegetation recovery: Case studies in Japan

The biological soil crust (BSC) is a naturally occurring vegetation layer in the topsoil that is composed of a diverse array of microscopic living organisms such as cyanobacteria, green algae, lichen, liverworts, moss, micro-fungi, and other bacteria. BSC cover is well recognized for mitigating soil erosion caused by wind forces and overland flow. By forming a sheet-like soil microbe community, BSC cover can bind loose soil particles, stabilize and protect soil surfaces. This article reviews the applications of human-induced BSC, namely BSC Method, that was developed by the Japanese company Nippon Koei Co. Ltd. The BSC Method utilizes an algal species called BSC-1. We also discussed the BSC projects undertaken by Nippon Koei Co. Ltd between 2016 and 2021. BSC Method has been demonstrated to be effective in preventing and controlling soil erosion and regenerating vegetation; this method is simple, eco-friendly, and inexpensive.