Biogeographical Perspective Research Articles

Biogeographical differences between the two Capra pyrenaica subspecies, C. p. victoriae and C. p. hispanica, inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula: Implications for conservation

The Iberian wild goat ( Capra pyrenaica), an endemic species to the Iberian Peninsula, was represented in the past by four subspecies. Currently, the conservation status of the recognized subspecies – C. p. hispanica and C. p. victoriae – is quite different, being the former broadly distributed while the latter inhabits fewer and smaller areas. In this global context, our specific aims were to assess the biogeographical relationships, similarities and differences between the Iberian wild goat subspecies, and to evaluate their conservation status from a biogeographical perspective. We modelled the ecogeographical favourability for each subspecies, and also for the whole species, and we comparatively analyzed the spatial relationships among models in order to detect differential biogeographical patterns. Our results showed a differential pattern for each Iberian wild goat subspecies, and thus each one should be independently considered when designing management strategies. The distribution of C. p. victoriae was closely related to climatic conditions, thus it is highly sensitive to variations in climatic characteristics. Finally, from the perspective of metapopulation theory, and according to the geographical structure of their favourable areas, C. p. victoriae is at higher risk than C. p. hispanica. We discuss the implications of our results for species/subspecies conservation, and highlight the importance of conservation biogeography.

Assessing biogeographical relationships of ecologically related species using favourability functions: a case study on British deer

AbstractAim Using six free‐living deer species in Great Britain as a case study, we studied biogeographical relationships of ecologically related species composed of both native and introduced species.Location Great Britain.Methods We modelled the environmental favourability for the deer species using variables related with spatial location, climate, topography, human disturbances and habitat structure. Favourability values of each pair of native (naturalized)‐introduced species were used to estimate the fuzzy overlap index (FOvI) as a measure of overall similarity between the environmental requirements for the species in Great Britain. The absolute local overlap values (FOvI‐L) were also used to measure the degree to which a given location was favourable simultaneously for each pair of species. We assessed the trends of species favourability across a range defined by the absolute local overlap values and studied the shape of the obtained curves since they informs us about the favourability balance between the studied species.Results Muntjac and Chinese water deer attained higher favourability values than native species in localities with intermediate values of FOvI‐L (a reduced number in the study area), suggesting that if competitive relationships were established in these localities the introduced deer species may have some advantages over natives. Sika deer only achieved higher values than fallow deer in those localities clearly unfavourable for the naturalized species. Our analyses predicted that fallow deer will be less affected by the introduced deer species than native species.Main conclusions We developed an approach based on the favourability function to describe biogeographical relationships between species, natives and introduced and to assess from a biogeographical perspective if introduced species could pose a competitive risk to natives. Although the results of present analyses do not conclusively demonstrate competitive exclusion, they provide directional hypotheses that can be tested in experimental field and laboratory studies.

Using regional comparative phylogeographic data from snake lineages to infer historical processes in Middle America

Understanding how historical processes have either similarly, or differentially, shaped the evolution of lineages or biotic assemblages is important for a broad spectrum of fields. Gaining such understanding can be particularly challenging, however, especially for regions that have a complex geologic and biological history. In this study we apply a broad comparative approach to distill such regional biogeographic perspectives, by characterizing sets of divergence times for major biogeographic boundaries estimated from multiple codistributed lineages of snakes. We use a large combined (mitochondrial gene sequence) phylogeographic/phylogenetic dataset containing several clades of snakes that range across Middle America – the tropical region between Mexico and northwestern South America. This region is known for its complex tectonic history, and poorly understood historical biogeography. Based on our results, we highlight how phylogeographic transition zones between Middle and South America and the Nicaragua Depression appear to have undergone multiple episodes of diversification in different lineages. This is in contrast to other examples we find where apparently a single vicariant period is shared across multiple lineages. We specifically evaluate the distributions of divergence time estimates across multiple lineages and estimate the number of temporal periods of lineage diversification per biogeographic break. Overall, our results highlight a great deal of shared temporal divergence, and provide important hypotheses for yet unstudied lineages. These multi‐lineage comparisons across multiple spatial and temporal scales provide excellent predictive power for identifying the roles of geology, climate, ecology and natural history in shaping regional biodiversity.

A reassessment of the Ceratozamia miqueliana species complex (Zamiaceae) of southeastern Mexico, with comments on species relationships

The Ceratozamia miqueliana species complex has been revised from a morphological, anatomical and biogeographical perspective. The complex consists of five closely related species, one of which is new, C. santillanii sp. nov., and is described and illustrated from the northern highlands of Chiapas. The five species, although not sympatric, occur in the ‘Arc’ Pleistocene floristic refuge that covers southern Mexico, including northern Oaxaca and Chiapas, as well as southern Tabasco and Veracruz. The five species are characterised by oblong, oblanceolate to widely ob‐lanceolate leaflets with decumbent or erect megastrobili when ripe. The species complex consists of C. becerrae Perez‐Farr., Vovides & Schutzman C. euryphyllidia Vazq.Torres, Sabato & D.W. Stev., ´C. miqueliana H. Wendl., C. zoquorum Perez‐Farr., Vovides & Iglesias and the new species which is related to C. zoquorum, but differs from these in leaf, male and female cone growth habit, as well as inter‐leaflet distance. Discriminant analysis using the five species with 14 variables showed significant differences (Wilks λ test, P < 0.01) for four functions among the five species. Mahalanobis distances were also highly significant among the five species (P < 0.01). Ceratozamia euryphyllidia and C. becerrae were the most distant, whereas C. zoquorum and C. becerrae were closest.

The Intersection of the Sciences of Biogeography and Infectious Disease Ecology

Our understanding of disease ecology can be enhanced by the use of spatially explicit models and a biogeographic perspective. For example, disease emergence is partially a function of shifts in the geographic ranges of pathogens and hosts. Biogeographic approaches can be used to help us understand the interaction of host and pathogen diversity. Climate change is a global phenomenon that will require a biogeographic perspective if we are to predict its affect on global disease burden. Studies of disease ecology can enhance our general understanding of the effects of global change on species' distributions by providing useful case studies for developing and testing models. Possibly most important, studies of the spread of pathogens has the promise of giving us a general law of species' spread. Currently, biogeography and disease ecology are disciplinary communities with little overlap. The articles in this special feature are designed to help bridge that gap.

Understanding the genetic consequences of environmental toxicant exposure: Chernobyl as a model system

We sampled vole populations in Ukraine with the dual goal of characterizing population diversity and of providing a biogeographic perspective to evaluate experimental designs used for previous studies. Our data indicate that genetic diversity in bank vole populations is widely variable across regions and that diversity estimates in contaminated sites are unremarkable compared to those in uncontaminated areas. Furthermore, the relative frequencies of haplotypes have remained statistically identical throughout multiple sampling periods. Thus, the genetic data from bank vole populations in Ukraine fail to support the hypothesis that mutational changes in contaminated regions are the product of exposure to Chernobyl radiation. Our results suggest that genetic diversity in radioactive regions of Ukraine is probably a function of natural geographic variation rather than increased mutational pressure from radiation exposure and underscore the importance of adequate geographic sampling in studies designed to elucidate the effects of toxicant exposure.

The herpetofauna of Sonora, Mexico, with comparisons to adjoining states

Situated in the topographically complex transition between the Neotropics and the temperate biomes of North America, the state of Sonora, Mexico, has an extraordinarily diverse herpetofauna. Surprisingly little research has been conducted on the state’s amphibians and reptiles and many systematic and biogeographic questions remain unanswered. To facilitate future research, we provide a checklist of Sonora’s herpetofauna, documenting species presence based on museum specimens, our fieldwork, and published research. Sonora’s herpetofauna is placed in a regional biogeographic perspective via a checklist for the six adjoining states together with faunal analyses. A total of 402 species of amphibians and reptiles are recorded from these seven states. Sonora has the greatest species richness (187 species), followed by Chihuahua (169 species), and Sinaloa (146 species). Sonora's herpetofauna is most similar to that of Chihuahua, with which it shares a long border. Eleven biogeographic affinity-based faunal groups are recognized. Of these, three are dominant in Sonora: a core group classified as "Sonoran" demonstrates strong affinity to Sonoran Desertscrub and Sinaloan Thornscrub communities; a Tropical group - with many species reaching their northern distributional limits in the state; and a Madrean group consisting largely of montane species. Our state-level faunal analysis provides some evidence of peninsular depauperization of the herpetofauna on the Baja California peninsula due in part to the small number of Neotropical species present in Baja California Sur. Our faunal analysis points toward distinctive mainland and peninsular Sonoran Desert herpetofaunas centered on Sonora and the Baja California Peninsula, respectively, each with about 50 non-insular species, and each with species-level endemism nearing 50%.

Paleobiogeography, biostratigraphy and systematics of the Hoplophorini (Xenarthra, Glyptodontoidea, Hoplophorinae) from the Ensenadan Stage (early Pleistocene to early-middle Pleistocene)

Neosclerocalyptus Paula Couto (= Hoplophorus = Sclerocalyptus) is a Pleistocene genus of Glyptodontidae Hoplophorini (=Sclerocalyptini) that includes several (ca. twelve) species, many of which have been recognized by typological/morphological taxonomic criteria. Four species have been described for the Ensenadan Stage (early Pleistocene to early-middle Pleistocene) of the Pampean region, Argentina. However, this study shows only two of them to be valid: Neosclerocalyptus pseudornatus and Neosclerocalyptus ornatus. An evident synapomorphy of Neosclerocalyptus is the notable pneumatization and lateral expansion of the fronto-nasal sinuses, which becomes evident in N. pseudornatus (ca. 1.07–0.98 Ma) and even more so in N. ornatus (ca. 0.98–0.40 Ma). This character, interpreted here as a probable response to the cold and arid/semiarid Pleistocene climate, is maximally manifested in the taxa from the middle Pleistocene (Bonaerian Stage) and late Pleistocene (Lujanian Stage). Neosclerocalyptus is very common in the Pampean region and north-central Argentina, but very scarce or absent in the Argentinian Mesopotamia, Uruguay and southern Brazil, areas that were subject to relatively more humid and warmer climates during most of the Pleistocene. From a biogeographical perspective, both Ensenadan species are restricted to the current Pampean region. N. pseudornatus is recorded in the “Toscas” (caliche duricrusts) of Río de La Plata (Buenos Aires City and Olivos) and Mar del Plata (Buenos Aires province), while N. ornatus is recorded in Mar del Plata and San Pedro (Buenos Aires province), and Granadero Baigorria (Santa Fe province).

Second representative of the order Misophrioida (Crustacea, Copepoda) from Australia challenges the hypothesis of the Tethyan origin of some anchialine faunas

A new species of the genus Speleophria is described from a cave in the Nullarbor region in southern Western Australia. Its congeners include species from the Balearics, Croatia, Bermuda, Yucatan peninsula and north-western Western Australia, all considered to be Tethyan relicts. However, the discovery of the new speleophriid in the Nullarbor region has important biogeographic and ecological implications. From the biogeographic perspective, it either suggests dispersal as the process determining the current distribution pattern of the aquatic fauna found on the Roe Plains or significantly extends the Tethyan track across Australia, from the north-western coastal margin of the continent to the southern coastal margin. From an ecologic perspective, the new speleophriid suggests the possible existence of anchialine habitats in southern Australia. Speleophria nullarborensis sp. nov. can be distinguished from its four congeners by its plesiomorphic 3-segmented endopod of the first swimming leg (2-segmented in other species) and unusually long innermost apical seta on the caudal ramus. Another character that easily distinguishes our new species, and seems to be an autapomorphic feature, is its constricted preanal somite.

The biogeography of seaweeds in Southeast Alaska

AbstractAim This article reviews the history of seaweed collections in Southeast Alaska from the early Russian explorers to contemporary efforts. It summarizes other studies of Southeast Alaskan seaweeds from a biogeographical perspective, and compares the known seaweed flora near three population centres (Ketchikan, Sitka and Juneau) with those of other regions within Alaska, and with nearby regions.Location For this article, Southeast Alaska includes all inside and outside waters of the Alexander Archipelago from Dixon Entrance (54°40′ N, 133°00′ W) to Icy Point (58°23′10″ N, 137°04′20″ W).Methods The literature on seaweeds occurring in Southeast Alaska is reviewed from a biogeographical perspective, and herbarium records for Southeast Alaska from the Alaska Seaweed Database project are used to provide an overview of the biogeography of the area. Records for the population centres of Ketchikan, Sitka and Juneau are compared with records from other areas within Alaska and with nearby regions to determine floristic similarities.Results Southeast Alaska has the most diverse seaweed flora of any region of Alaska. A list of species known to occur in Southeast Alaska is appended (in Supplementary Material) and includes their reported occurrences in three population centres (Juneau, Ketchikan and Sitka). Recognition of at least three distinct biogeographical areas associated with these three centres is supported by a comparison of their floras with those of other regions in the North Pacific. A close relationship of some species with conspecifics in the north‐west Atlantic is also noted. In contrast, ecological, physiological and genetic differentiation of Southeast Alaskan seaweeds from conspecifics in Washington State or even from different areas of Southeast Alaska are documented. A ShoreZone coastal habitat system, which is being implemented to inventory and map the entire shoreline of Southeast Alaska, is defining new biogeographical units called ‘bioareas’ on the basis of the distribution of canopy kelps and lower intertidal algal assemblages.Main conclusions Southeast Alaska has the most diverse seaweed flora of any region of Alaska. This is a reflection of its extensive coastline, with varied past and present environmental conditions. Different parts of Southeast Alaska show similarities to different areas outside Southeast Alaska. Despite this, much remains to be learned about the biogeography of seaweeds in Southeast Alaska, and many questions remain to be answered.

Toward representative protection of the world's coasts and oceans—progress, gaps, and opportunities

AbstractMarine conservation lags behind terrestrial in the establishment of protected areas. This was recognized by the Convention on Biological Diversity, whose members, in 2004, agreed to establish “comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative” systems of marine protected areas (MPAs) by 2012. Halfway toward this target date, we look at the coverage of the world's 5045 MPAs from a biogeographic perspective. Only 4.09% of continental shelf areas are incorporated within MPAs, although coverage rises to 12.1% in a narrow coastal belt. Approximately half of all marine ecoregions have less than 1% MPA coverage across the shelf, but this is highly variable, and (8%) of ecoregions have &gt;30% protection. Protection is greatest in the tropical realms, while temperate realms remain poorly represented. Given that that many sites lack effective management, even these low estimates of coverage are an optimistic measure of the extent of effective marine conservation.

Paleobiogeography of the pectinid bivalve Neithea, and its pattern of step-wise demise in the Albian Northwest Pacific

The pectinid bivalve genus Neithea is one of the most important indicators for understanding the biogeographic relationships between the Tethyan Realm and North Pacific Province during the Cretaceous Period. Changes in temporal species diversity, endemic/widespread species composition, and origination and demise ratios of Neithea at each Cretaceous stage boundary in the Northwest Pacific were analyzed from a biogeographic perspective. Neithea is continuously present in the Northwest Pacific during the Berriasian to late Albian time interval. Species diversity reached its maximum in the late Aptian, being correlated with the global warming phase. Step-wise demise of Neithea in the Northwest Pacific during the Albian is subdivided into three stages: the late Aptian/early Albian, early Albian/middle-late Albian, and late Albian/early Cenomanian. Thereafter, Neithea disappeared in the Northwest Pacific and never reappeared. This pattern is the reverse of the Albian diversification of Neithea in the Mediterranean, and also contrary to the Mid-Cretaceous global warming trend. Demise of Neithea in the Northwest Pacific occurred simultaneously with the step-wise demise of Mesogean taxa (e.g., rudists) which strongly supports the idea that the Northwest Pacific gradually became independent from the Tethyan Realm during the Albian. It also suggests a long-term deterioration of the faunal interchange between the North Pacific Province and Tethyan Realm throughout the Late Cretaceous. This biogeographic change was possibly caused by Albian “cooling” and changes in oceanic flow/heat transport in the Northwest Pacific.

Methylotrophic bacteria on the surfaces of field-grown sunflower plants: a biogeographic perspective

Plant-associated methylobacteria of the genus Methylobacterium colonize the foliage and roots of embryophytes, living on the volatile compound methanol emitted from the cells of their host organism. In this study we analyzed these surface-dwelling pink-pigmented epiphytes in three contrasting habitats of field-grown sunflower plants (Helianthus annuus). Using the methanol-ammonium salts agar surface impression method and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assay, we document the occurrence and characterize the composition of the methylobacteria in these epiphytic habitats. In both the sun-exposed phylloplane (yellow ligulate florets; green leaves) and the moist, dark rhizoplane pink-pigmented methylobacteria were detected that are assigned to the taxa M. mesophilicum, M. extorquens, M. radiotolerans and M. sp. (un-identifiable by our methods). Considerable differences in relative species compositions were found. These data are discussed with respect to a biogeographic model of the plant surface and microbial population dynamics on leaves. In addition, methylobacteria were analyzed by microscopic techniques. We document that in sedentary colonies extracellular polymers are secreted. However, flagella, which were observed in single cells maintained in liquid cultures, are absent in these bacterial aggregates.

A Brief History of the New World Flying Squirrels: Phylogeny, Biogeography, and Conservation Genetics

I summarize our current understanding of the evolutionary origin and biogeographic history of the New World flying squirrels (Glaucomys). The emerging synthesis of flying squirrel systematics supports a monophyletic origin for the group in the early Miocene followed by a divergence of New World and Eurasian flying squirrels in the late Miocene. Today, the New World flying squirrels consist of 2 recognized species, G. sabrinus and G. volans. These 2 species are closely associated with the northern coniferous and deciduous hardwood forest biomes of North America, respectively, making them especially useful as biogeographic indicator species for these 2 forest types. Molecular systematic studies have revealed the presence of 2 distinct evolutionary lineages within G. sabrinus (a widespread Continental lineage and a more geographically restricted Pacific Coastal lineage). Bacular morphology and data from nuclear loci suggest recent or ongoing gene flow between these 2 lineages where they meet in the Pacific Northwest of North America. Populations of G. volans from eastern North America represent a 3rd distinct lineage within the genus. Mesoamerican flying squirrels (traditionally considered to be southern forms of G. volans) have not been examined with molecular data and may represent 1 or more additional lineages. From a biogeographic perspective, Quaternary climatic fluctuations and associated changes in the location and extent of forest habitats appear to have been important factors in promoting early evolutionary diversification within the genus; structuring of intraspecific patterns of genetic variation; and producing geographically isolated peripheral populations in high-elevation habitats at the southern extremes of each species' range, several of which are now of conservation concern. These results have broad implications for understanding the Quaternary biogeography of the coniferous and deciduous forest biomes of North America.

Trematode parasites (Platyhelminthes) of wildlife vertebrates in Mexico

Trematodes are one of the world’s most diverse groups of parasitic platyhelminths found in vertebrates. In this book, a parasite-host list, including all species of trematodes recorded in Mexican wildlife, is presented. These parasites have been studied since the 1930s. The first description of a trematode species was published in 1932. After 75 years of taxonomic research on this group, a total number of 624 species belonging to 311 genera and 78 families have been recorded, with a very high percentage of endemicity, since almost 30% represented new species. The inventory presented here results from several years of data compilation obtained from original sources, from various published accounts (Bachelor´s and graduate student’s thesis, book chapters, peer-reviewed publications, etc.), to database information from parasite collections. In this contribution, we present the most updated inventory of this parasitic group, including not only taxonomic information related to each trematode species, but also information about their host(s) and geographical distribution. Most of the records of trematodes we present in the book include remarks or taxonomical comments. These comments are related with their systematic position within current classification schemes, and in some occasions they correspond to synonymies. In all cases the original reference is presented so reader may want to check on the original source. Drawings of representative species of each trematode family presented in the book are shown, as well as pictures of some type-specimens that show some part of the morphological diversity of this group of parasites. A general overview of the information we have gathered thus far indicates that sampling effort has been unequal regarding vertebrate group studied and geographical distribution. Clearly fish, including marine, brackish and freshwater, have been more extensively studied than any other group of vertebrates, and the northern region of the country has been poorly sampled for helminth parasites within all vertebrate groups. The inventory of vertebrate trematodes in Mexico is far from complete. As a result, it is currently not possible to estimate the size of the fauna (i.e. the number of species present), but available information allows for assessments of general biodiversity patterns and the potential for estimates, as a result of inventory compilation and appropriate methodologies, of the number of species arising in the near future. The main intention of this book is to present the information we have compiled thus far. This information is found in 568 published accounts, and no previous effort has been made to organize and analyze this enormous amount of data. We are confident that this work will contribute to our knowledge of this parasitic group and settles the stage for future research regarding host-parasite interactions between trematodes and their vertebrate hosts in one of the most important, from a biogeographical perspective, regions of the world. Mexico occupies a transitional position between Nearctic and Neotropical biogeographical regions, so future trematode research may be focused on understanding species distribution, once a more complete inventory is generated.

Annotated Nomenclatural Update to Lichens of North Central Oklahoma

Darwin Keck’s pioneering work was one of the first detailed accounts of the lichen biota of a region in the Great Plains. This area of Oklahoma is especially interesting, since it includes several important ecoregions, including both cross timbers and Osage Plains/Flint Hills tallgrass prairie. The eastern portions of the study area have strong Ozarkian biogeographic influence. Keck’s work is important from a biogeographic perspective, since it elucidates details regarding the western ranges of several species traditionally thought to be associated with eastern woodlands, while simultaneously documenting the presence of several lichen taxa more commonly associated with western and southwestern North America.

Implications of mitochondrial DNA polyphyly in two ecologically undifferentiated but morphologically distinct migratory birds, the masked and white‐browed woodswallows Artamus spp. of inland Australia

The white‐browed woodswallow Artamus superciliosus and masked woodswallow A. personatus (Passeriformes: Artamidae) are members of Australia's diverse arid‐ and semi‐arid zone avifauna. Widely sympatric and among Australia's relatively few obligate long‐distance temperate‐tropical migrants, the two are well differentiated morphologically but not ecologically and vocally. They are pair breeders unlike other Artamus species, which are at least facultative cooperative breeders. For these reasons they are an excellent case in which to use molecular data in integrative study of their evolution from ecological and biogeographical perspectives. We used mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to test whether they are each other's closest relatives, whether they evolved migration independently, whether they have molecular signatures of population expansions like some other Australian arid zone birds, and to estimate the timing of any inferred population expansions. Their mtDNAs are monophyletic with respect to other species of Artamus but polyphyletic with respect to each other. The two species appear not to have evolved migration independently of each other but their morphological and mtDNA evolution have been strongly decoupled. Some level of hybridization and introgression cannot be dismissed outright as being involved in their mtDNA polyphyly but incomplete sorting of their most recent common ancestor's mtDNA is a simpler explanation consistent with their ecology. Bayesian phylogenetic inference and analyses of diversity within the two species (n=77) with conventional diversity statistics, statistical parsimony, and tests for population expansion vs stability (Tajima's D, Fu's Fs and Ramos‐Onsin and Rozas's R2) all favour recent population increases. However, a non‐starlike network suggests expansion(s) relatively early in the Pleistocene. Repeated population bottlenecks corresponding with multiple peaks of Pleistocene aridity could explain our findings, which add a new dimension to accruing data on the effects of Pleistocene aridity on the Australian biota.

Integrated Approaches, Multiple Scales: Snag Dynamics in Burned Versus Unburned Landscapes*

By studying landscape form and patterns, we can study processes at multiple scales and determine how collectively those processes inform us about function(s). Integrating landscape ecology from a biogeographical perspective with geographic information science (GIScience) practices offers new ways to study how landscapes change over time and space, including how they can be measured, analyzed, and modeled for management needs. This article presents methodologies and selected results of analyzing spatial patterns from field data across multiple scales by examining standing dead tree (snag) processes across wildfire-disturbed landscapes in Arizona. Our primary motivation was to illustrate a particular type of work benefiting from the coalescing of landscape ecology and GIScience, functioning at the methodological and practical overlap of these two contributing fields. Our management goals were to (1) describe spatial patterns and characteristics of snags in pairs of burned and unburned ponderosa pine forests of Arizona in four recent (within the past ten years) wildfires, (2) document bird response to wildfires by combining landscape ecology and GIScience methods, and (3) link these patterns to snag monitoring plots and cavity-nesting bird use to predict the probability of snag use by birds and cavity nesters based on snag characteristics (snag use model). The methods and results demonstrate how integration of landscape ecology with both GIS and GIScience improves the ways to study landscapes and land management issues, in this case offering guidelines for retention of snags that provide habitat for wildlife.

Systematics of the parasitic wasp genus Yelicones Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Rogadinae) and revision of the genus from the New World

Species of the braconid wasp genus Yelicones Cameron from North, Central and South America are revised and the first phylogenetic analysis of the world Yelicones fauna is presented. The results are considered from a biogeographical perspective and the effect of including and excluding colour characters is investigated. One hundred and twenty‐four species from throughout the world are recognised. Eighty‐five species are from the New World, 63 of which are new. A fully illustrated key to New World species is provided. A total of 116 characters were scored, of which 86 were morphological and 30 were based on the wasps’ colour pattern. All analyses show a near perfect diversion between New and Old World species. However, analyses excluding and including colour produced completely opposite results in terms of whether New or Old World species were basal. We found that in our data matrix colour characters performed at least as well as morphological characters in terms of their ensemble retention index, making it difficult to decide which phylogenetic hypotheses is correct. However, consideration of venom apparatus features leads us to prefer the hypotheses placing the New World taxa basally.

A phylogenetic and biogeographic perspective on the evolution of poeciliid fishes

Phylogenetic relationships of members of the subfamily Poeciliinae (Cyprinodontiformes) are investigated to test alternate hypotheses of diversification resulting from the assembly of the Central America and the Caribbean from the Cretaceous period onwards. We use 4333 aligned base pairs of mitochondrial DNA and 1549 aligned base pairs of nuclear DNA from 55 samples representing 48 ingroup and seven outgroup species to test this hypothesis. Mitochondrial genes analyzed include those encoding the 12S and 16S ribosomal RNAs; transfer RNAs coding for valine, leucine, isoleucine, glutamine, methionine, tryptophan, alanine, asparagine, cysteine and tyrosine; and complete cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit I and II; nuclear gene analyzed included the third exon of the recombination activation gene 1 (RAG1). Analyses of combined mtDNA and nuclear DNA data sets result in a well-supported phylogenetic hypothesis. This hypothesis is in conflict with the classical taxonomic assignment of genera into tribes and phylogenetic hypotheses based on the taxonomy; however, the molecular hypothesis defines nine clades that are geographically restricted and consistent with the geological evolution of Central America and the Caribbean. Our analyses support multiple colonization events of Middle America followed by a mix of vicariance and dispersal events.