Himalayan Biodiversity Research Articles

Conservation and management of Himalayan biodiversity in climate change perspectives

Diverse agro-ecosystems are the bedrock of life-sustaining goods and services, ranging from water and energy to food production and the facilitation of energy and nutrient cycling. These ecosystems not only benefit humanity but also play a crucial role in supporting the balance of ecosystems worldwide. Biodiversity conservation and management are paramount as they directly impact the suitability and resilience of ecosystems, ultimately affecting the livelihoods of both human and non-human species. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) boasts extraordinary biodiversity; however, efforts to conserve and harness its bio-resources for technological advancements or useful products lag behind many other nations. Climate change exacerbates these challenges, affecting every aspect of agriculture and biodiversity across tropical and subtropical regions. In response to this urgent context, there is a pressing need to review existing conservation and management strategies while identifying areas for improvement. Analyzing the diverse requirements and methods of conserving biodiversity involves prioritizing the sustenance of natural processes and features inherent in our natural resources and associated ecosystems. Recognizing that natural solutions exist within these resources, landscapes, and ecosystems is pivotal. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts and institutional synergy among various stakeholders, including researchers, local communities, resource managers, and policymakers. Collaboration is essential to conserve biodiversity while leveraging existing or newly created opportunities and resources within ecosystems. Furthermore, revising and updating legal frameworks, policy guidelines, and other instruments are crucial steps to ensure the sustained protection of biodiversity and ecosystems. This includes safeguarding the livelihoods and food production avenues of local communities, thereby fostering sustainable development practices that prioritize both human well-being and environmental integrity.. KEYWORDS :Himalayan Biodiversity, Climate change, Conservation and Management.

Identifying umbrella and indicator species to support multispecies population connectivity in a Himalayan biodiversity hotspot

Successful conservation hinges on the reliable prediction and prioritisation of population core habitats and dispersal corridors. However, reliance on single-species connectivity has produced mixed results and, in most cases, failed to protect other species under the appealing but often unfulfilled guise of umbrella protection. The main objectives of this study were: (1) to identify core habitats and dispersal corridors for population connectivity of 15 terrestrial mammal species across Bhutan, (2) to identify indicator species of wildlife connectivity, (3) to prioritise core areas and dispersal corridors for the focal umbrella and indicator species, (4) to develop composite multispecies connectivity maps and evaluate the effectiveness of the existing protected area network. We used kernel density (KD) to identify core habitat areas and factorial least-cost path (LCP) to map dispersal corridors. We used correlation and cluster analyses to identify umbrella and indicator species, and quantitative ranking to prioritise core areas and corridors for these focal species. Finally, we produced maps of multispecies core areas and corridors, and identified gaps in the existing protected area network (PAN). We found that ungulates were generally more effective than carnivores in serving as umbrella species for core habitat protection, with Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) emerging as the most effective umbrella for core habitats and muntjac (Muntiacus muntjac) for dispersal corridors. We identified six focal connectivity indicator species in Bhutan: tiger (Panthera tigris), dhole (Cuon alpinus), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), Asian elephant, and sambar deer (Rusa unicolor). Most indicator species’ core areas and dispersal corridors outside the PAN were in southern Bhutan, indicating opportunities for increased multispecies connectivity through expanding protected area network in this region. A total of 40% of multispecies core areas and 24% of dispersal corridors were under PAN, with large parts of Bhutan offering suitable core areas and corridors for multispecies conservation. Core areas and corridors of the 15 considered species only partially overlapped, stressing the importance of multi-species consideration in designating wildlife corridors.

Human‐associated genetic landscape of walnuts in the Himalaya: implications for conservation and utilization

AbstractAimsA comprehensive understanding of the genetic variation of walnuts (Juglans regia and J. sigillata) in the Himalaya and its potential drivers are essential for the conservation and sustainable utilization of these plant genetic resources. In this study, we aimed to uncover the genetic landscape of walnuts and potential drivers in the Himalaya for better utilization, awareness, sustainable management and conservation of the extant genetic resources of walnuts in the vast Himalayan landscape.LocationThe Himalaya biodiversity hotspot.MethodsA total of 1410 wild or feral walnut trees from 65 populations of J. regia and J. sigillata across four countries in the Himalaya were collected. The genetic diversity, population structure, hybridization and gene flow were thoroughly investigated based on the chloroplast genome and 31 nuclear microsatellite markers. The patterns and drivers of the walnut genetic landscape were further explored.ResultsWe detected three genetic groups of J. regia (JR1, JR2, JR3), one of J. sigillata (JS) and two hybrid types (JR1 × JS and JR3 × JS) of walnut in the Himalaya, with the western Himalaya identified as the genetic diversity hotspot of J. regia. The spatial genetic pattern of the J. regia was significantly influenced by geographic and climatic factors. Human‐mediated dispersal probably promoted the hybridization and gene introgression between J. regia and J. sigillata, which reshaped the genetic landscape of walnut populations in the Himalaya.Main ConclusionsThe extant genetic landscape of walnuts in the Himalaya was driven by natural and anthropogenic forces. Regarding conservation, the western and eastern Himalaya are the genetic reservoir of J. regia and J. sigillata, and hence, pure individuals should be urgently protected from frequent hybridization and introgression. In addition, we propose the utilization of natural hybrid resources coupled with new breeding techniques that combine genomic and phenotypic data.

A Review on Chironomidae (Diptera) of the Eastern Himalayan Region: An Insight into Distribution and Conservation

The Chironomidae (Diptera) commonly known as “midges”, are the most widely distributed and frequently the most abundant group of insects in freshwater ecosystems. Chironomids larvae plays a key ecological role in the maintenance of aquatic ecosystem services, mainly in secondary production and energy flow dynamics [1]. They are the freshwater bio-monitoring indicators of pollution, habitat modifications, and natural changes of water quality [2,3], and is a model which helps to predict diversity and strength of food web of aquatic communities [4]. The objective of the study is to highlight the distribution pattern, biodiversity and the status of conservation of Eastern Himalaya region species of the family Chironomidae. The 'Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot' is indeed a "store house of biodiversity" because of its rich spectrum of species of flora and fauna including insect species which have been remaining unexplored. This study is a descriptive analysis to assay the main trends on Chironomidae research in freshwater assessments like ecology, palaeolimnology, biogeography, cytology, developmental and eco-toxicological research in Eastern Himalaya region. Finally the review work helps to get a more comprehensive picture of fauna of chironomids in the Eastern Himalayas in relation to those reported earlier from other parts of the globe.

Exploring Antigenic Properties and Immune Responses in Bufo himalayanus: Implications for Conservation and Biodiversity Protection

Background: The objective of the study is to investigate antigenic property of soluble antigens of Nematodes Cosmocercoides dukae isolated from infected Bufo himalayanus (Class Amphibia, order: Anura) and to investigate the nature of protective immune response in laboratory rats. Bufo himalayanus is a species found in the districts of Darjeeling, Sikkim and adjoining hills of the sub-Himalayan belt, at an altitude of 6000 ft. above the sea level and known to be heavily infested by natural gut dwelling nematode infections. The present study is a small step towards protection and conservation of this amphibian species.
 Results: study of morphology of the nematode parasite confirmed it to be Cosmocercoides dukae. A crude whole body homogenate (antigenic protein) of the parasite was injected in healthy non-infected rats, spleen histo-architecture of treated rats differed from control rats. Humoral immune response assay by Gel Diffusion Precipitin (GDP) Test revealed that the parasite antigen invoked very little to no response. Study of the crude nematode antigenic protein extract concentration was 6.09 mg/ml and protein profile assay by SDS-PAGE showed seven major and several minor bands.
 Discussion: Though humoral immune response assay of parasite in experimental rats evoked very little or no immune response, this would not mean absence of antibodies, rather the antibody titers were presumably very low. It is to be noted that spleen of treated rats showed a distinctive histological feature. GDP test with infected toad serum also showed negative result. But protein profile assay of antigenic protein by SDS-PAGE showed many bands of proteins, which could be isolated and tested for further characterization.
 Conclusion: In order to maintain the Himalayan biodiversity, this amphibian species needs protection from such natural infective nematode parasites. If we are able to focus any light to this area, this knowledge might help the future research workers to plan for the protection of this species.

Spatial characterization of forest ecosystem services and human-induced complexities in Himalayan biodiversity hotspot area.

The forest ecosystem of Indian Himalayan Region offers various ecosystem services (ESs) that are crucial for the sustenance of human beings. However, the rapid expansion of human activities (HA) poses a significant threat to the provision of the forest ecosystem services (FES). For simple and definitive assessments of FES and HA, the use of indicators has become an indispensable approach. In the present study, we performed: (i) indicator-based mapping of FES and HA, and (ii) evaluated the impact of HA on FES with the aid of geospatial techniques. Village-level analysis was conducted for FES and HA in the Aglar watershed of Uttarakhand, India for 2015. Four dominant forest types in the watershed-Quercus mixed, Pinus roxburghii, Cedrus deodara, and mixed forest were considered. For spatial characterization of FES, indicators such as forest carbon stock, net primary productivity, total water retention, and sediment yield were assessed, whereas human activity index (HAI) was evaluated using indicators of HAs, namely population density, road density, farmland, and habitation ratio. The integration of normalized values of FES indicators generated multiple ecosystem services indicator (MESI), and HAI was contructed using analytical hierarchical process based assignment of weights to HA indicators. Spatial analysis techniques such as ordinary least-square regression (OLS) and geographically weighted regression (GWR) models were used to derive the spatial relationship between them. The adjusted R2 and AIC were utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of the model. The GWR model had a better fit with an adjusted R2 of 0.68 and a lower AIC of 42.940, compared to the OLS model with an adjusted R2 of 0.21 and an AIC of 60.52. The statistics showed that GWR performed better than OLS and ably captured the heteroscedasticity of the phenomena. An inverse relation was observed between MESI and HAI. The findings of the study highlight the close link between the supply of FES and the impact of human-induced disturbances over the provision of FES, which has the potential to increase over time. The study provides a scientific basis for structuring policy dialogues to coordinate the long-term regional sustainability of FES provisioned from the Himalayan regions.

Quantifying the landscape changes within and outside the Dachigam National Park, Kashmir Himalaya, India using observations and models.

Protected areas are the cornerstone of biodiversity and serve as a haven for biodiversity conservation. However, due to immense anthropic pressures and ongoing changes in climate, the protected reserves are under immense threat. Human interference through land system changes is a major precusor of fragmentation of landscapes resulting in the decline of Himalayan biodiversity. In this context, this research assessed land use land cover changes (LULCCs) and fragmentation within and outside the Dachigam National Park (DNP) using remote sensing data, GIS-based models and ground truth over the past 55 years (1965-2020). Landscape Fragmentation Tool (LFT) helped to compute edge effect, patchiness, perforation and core areas. The Land Change Modeller (LCM) of IDRISI TerrSet was used for simulating the future LULC for the years 2030, 2050, 2700 and 2100. The analysis of LULCCs showed that built-up and aquatic vegetation expanded by 326% and 174%, respectively in the vicinity of the DNP. The area under agriculture, scrub and pasture decreased primarily due to intensified land use activities. Within the DNP, the area under forest cover declined by 7%. A substantial decrease was observed in the core zone both within (39%) and outside (30%) the DNP indicative of fragmentation of natural habitats. LCM analysis projected 10% increase in the built-up extents besides forests, shrublands and pastures. This knowledge generated in this study shall form an important baseline for understanding and characterising the human-wildlife relationship, initiating long-term ecological research (LTER) on naturally vegetated and aquatic ecosystems (primarily Dal Lake) of the region.

Five new records of Annulohypoxylon spp. (Hypoxylaceae) from India

ABSTRACT Species of Annulohypoxylon are saprotrophic fungi growing predominantly on dead shoots of dicots. They are also known to produce a diverse range of secondary metabolites, including some bioactive compounds. During a survey conducted in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate forests of Arunachal Pradesh (Northeast India) that lies within the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot, seven species of Annulohypoxylon (Hypoxylaceae) were collected and identified. Of these, five are new records to India (A. leptascum, A. microbovei, A. nitens, A. subeffusum, A. viridistratum) while A. subeffusum is a new report from Southeast Asia. The two remaining species (A. stygium, A. truncatum) were previously reported from India. All seven species are described, illustrated and discussed based on morphology.

Soil Physico-Chemical Properties in Different Forests of Tehri & Pauri-Garhwal Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India

Garhwal Himalaya is part of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and represents the western Himalayan landscape of the Indian Himalayas. The aim of the present investigation was to analyze soil properties in different forest areas across different altitudes of the Garhwal Himalayas, i.e., Quercus leucotrichophora Forest (>1900 m), Anogessious latifolia Forest (1300 m), Mixed Forest (900 m), and Shrub-dominated Forest (600 m). Physical and chemical properties of the soil were estimated using all the standard procedures, such as the Walkley-Black method for SOC and the Kjeldahl method for Nitrogen, in the department laboratory of HNB Garhwal University. The results of this study revealed that the high-altitude temperate Quercus luecotrichophora Forest has dominated in all soil properties and has greater potential to store soil organic carbon stock and Nitrogen (29.64 ± 3.48 t ha-1) (Nitrogen 254.22 ± 27.16 kg ha-1) than sub-tropical Anogeissus latifolia Dominated Forest, Mixed Forest, and Shrub Dominated Forest with SOC stock values of 18.34 ± 2.90, 14.52 ± 2.27, and 10.74 ± 1.57 t ha-1 and Nitrogen values of 205.47±7.10, 197.07±1.50, 193.79±8.15.

Predicting potential distribution and range dynamics of Aquilegia fragrans under climate change: insights from ensemble species distribution modelling.

Climate change is one of the primary causes of species redistribution and biodiversity loss, especially for threatened and endemic important plant species. Therefore, it is vital to comprehend "how" and "where" priority medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) might be effectively used to address conservation-related issues under rapid climate change. In the present study, an ensemble modelling approach was used to investigate the present and future distribution patterns of Aquilegia fragrans Benth. under climate change in the entire spectrum of Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. The results of the current study revealed that, under current climatic conditions, the northwest states of India (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the northern part of Uttarakhand), the eastern and southern parts of Pakistan Himalaya have highly suitable climatic conditions for the growth of A. fragrans. The ensemble model exhibited high forecast accuracy, with temperature seasonality and precipitation seasonality as the main climatic variables responsible for the distribution of the A. fragrans in the biodiversity hotspot. Furthermore, the study predicted that future climate change scenarios will diminish habitat suitability for the species by -46.9% under RCP4.5 2050 and -55.0% under RCP4.5 2070. Likewise, under RCP8.5, the habitat suitability will decrease by -51.7% in 2050 and -94.3% in 2070. The current study also revealed that the western Himalayan area will show the most habitat loss. Some currently unsuitable regions, such as the northern Himalayan regions of Pakistan, will become more suitable under climate change scenarios. Hopefully, the current approach may provide a robust technique and showcases a model with learnings for predicting cultivation hotspots and developing scientifically sound conservation plans for this endangered medicinal plant in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot.

Community-based conservation in Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot- a case study

Biodiversity resources of southern bank of Yarlung Tsangbo river valley in South Tibet and Bumdelling-Tawang corridor in the eastern Bhutan are less explored by tourism and urbanization. Institutional initiatives for the conservation of these rich biodiversity areas under the traditional ownership of local communities of Arunachal Pradesh led to a community-based conservation model of Community Conserved Areas (CCA). Spontaneous participation of the stakeholders in these CCA was lacking because conservation objective was conflicting with traditional livelihood practices. To create new livelihood opportunities, the village institutions mobilized community-based leisure models and aligned these alternate livelihood objectives with ecological conservation. These economic initiatives met the challenges of bureaucratic administration, restricted access being close to international boundary with Bhutan & China, ineffective promotion by government agencies, and, the threats caused by the hydroelectric dam project. Strategy implementation was flawed because of the information sharing mechanism between China-India and India-Bhutan is constrained due to international borders. Internal challenges of indigenous CCA were limited customer integration, skewed societal acceptance of leisure-based livelihood practices, and capital cost of conservation capacity. Marketing of tourism in CCAs of Thembang and Zemithang as nature tourism destination requires all-weather road, sustained technical and financial support, and distribution linkages. This research discusses the critical success factor of Zemithang as an expanding CCA and limitations of Thembang CCA in mobilizing host community support. The authors argue that the community-based biodiversity conservation in the western Arunachal Pradesh must be supported by a participatory format of alternate livelihood opportunities.

Plant species diversity and density patterns along altitude gradient covering high-altitude alpine regions of west Himalaya, India

ABSTRACT Understanding species richness and diversity patterns and their governing factors in less-to-unexplored regions across Himalaya provide invaluable insights into exploring drivers which shape as well as influence plant community structures. The present investigation explores plant species richness and diversity patterns across different growth forms and its association with environmental parameters along altitudinal gradient (3200 m-4800 m) in alpine regions of west Himalaya, India. A total of 265 plant taxa were documented from study area with higher proportion of herbs (212), followed by shrubs (44) and trees (9). Species richness, diversity, and density patterns were estimated for each growth form along altitude gradients using polynomial regression and an apparent monotonically decreasing trend (p < 0.05) was seen across transects, with highest values for herbs. Beta diversity, estimated for each transect, was low in Darma for herbs exhibiting high species packaging and homogenous composition, and high in Mana showing more scope for occurrence of rare/occasional herbs. Four major distinct altitudinal zones were identified for Uttarakhand alpines using cluster dendrogram, i.e., 3200 to 3500 m, 3600 to 3900 m, 4000 to 4500 m and 4600 to 4800 m with respect to their vegetation composition. NMDS of combined dataset along altitude gradient across transects also exhibited proximity among lower altitudesof transects with similar species composition (like Anaphalis, Danthonia, Geranium, Pedicularis, Potentilla), while high-altitude plots were scattered towards both ends of axesinhabiting specialized plant species (like Gentiana, Nardostachys, Saussurea, Sedum, Swertia). The relationship between vegetation variables (richness, diversity and density) and climate variables was modelled using Pearson’s correlation (P < 0.001) and temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation exhibited positive correlation, while windspeed showed negative correlation. Relative effect of climatic parameters on species composition, analysed by CCA, showed strongest influence of precipitation in vegetation zones with high axes correlation, followed by temperature, isothermality and wind speed, while influence solar radiation was lowest. Thus, under the current climate change scenario, any change in these factors may alter the composition of these high-altitude area and threaten the unique flora as well as the fauna dependent on it. Hence, any effort made towards conservation would eventually benefit a significant proportion of Himalayan biodiversity.

Land Use and Land Cover Change Monitoring and Prediction of a UNESCO World Heritage Site: Kaziranga Eco-Sensitive Zone Using Cellular Automata-Markov Model

The Kaziranga Eco-Sensitive Zone is located on the edge of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot region. In 1985, the Kaziranga National Park (KNP) was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Nowadays, anthropogenic interference has created a significant negative impact on this national park. As a result, the area under natural habitat is gradually decreasing. The current study attempted to analyze the land use land cover (LULC) change in the Kaziranga Eco-Sensitive Zone using remote sensing data with CA-Markov models. Satellite remote sensing and the geographic information system (GIS) are widely used for monitoring, mapping, and change detection of LULC change dynamics. The changing rate was assessed using thirty years (1990–2020) of Landsat data. The study analyses the significant change in LULC, with the decrease in the waterbody, grassland and agricultural land, and the increase of sand or dry river beds, forest, and built-up areas. Between 1990 and 2020, waterbody, grassland, and agricultural land decreased by 18.4, 9.96, and 64.88%, respectively, while sand or dry river beds, forest, and built-up areas increased by 103.72, 6.96, and 89.03%, respectively. The result shows that the area covered with waterbodies, grassland, and agricultural land is mostly converted into built-up areas and sand or dry river bed areas. According to this study, by 2050, waterbodies, sand or dry river beds, and forests will decrease by 3.67, 3.91, and 7.11%, respectively; while grassland and agriculture will increase by up to 16.67% and 0.37%, respectively. The built-up areas are expected to slightly decrease during this period (up to 2.4%). The outcome of this study is expected to be useful for the long-term management of the Kaziranga Eco-Sensitive Zone.

Structure and Composition of Vegetation and Status of Invasion in Different Forest Types of Western Himalaya

Present study deals with qualitative and quantitative assessment of vegetation in four most dominated forest types of western Himalaya, Sal (Shorea robusta) forest, Chir-Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest, Banj-oak (Quercus leucotrichophora), and Deodar forest (Cedrus deodara) between 600 to 2100 m asl elevation. These forests serve the lifeline for local communities for their daily sustenance. A total of 336 species belonging to 277 genera and 98 families were recoded from study area. Total basal cover (TBC) ranged between 24.05 to 35.15 m² ha^-1, Tree density ranged from 472 to 1068, shrub’s density varied between 1930 to 4080 whereas herbs ranged from 53600 to 80008 individual per hectare. Maximum tree density was recorded (1068 ind. ha^-1) at the oak stand and minimum (472 ind. ha^-1) recorded at the Sal forest. Species richness, Shannon-Wiener diversity index and TBC increase from Sal to oak forest. It was observed that temperate oak forests in study area comprised higher diversity and species richness at tree, shrub and herb layer, Sal forest depicted higher regeneration. Major invasive species in study area were Lantana camara, Ageratina adenophora, Ageratum conyzoides and Parthenium hysterophorous. In present study, Ageratina adenophora recorded an elevation of about 2100m asl, which is the alarming sign for local biodiversity and may cause a serious threat to Himalayan biodiversity.

Generic and species richness of ant fauna in different provinces of Nepal (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Nepal, a part of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot, has a high diversity of habitat and species. Its myrmecofaunal diversity and distribution, however, is little understood. Here, I summarize the provincial distribution of all named species of ants for the seven provinces of Nepal through a literature review and examination of materials available at museum and private collections. The distribution of Nepalese ants in each province reveals that Bagmati province has the highest known generic and species richness with 37 genera and 93 species, followed by Gandaki (32, 68), Province 1 (27, 55), Sudurpashchim (15, 15), Lumbini (12, 13), Madhesh (9, 11), and Karnali (5, 5). The four of the seven provinces, Sudurpashchim, Karnali, Lumbini, and Madhesh have been significantly under sampled in the country in terms of documented species richness. Although the figures cannot accurately represent the real species richness of each province, I hope that by highlighting the research gaps, it will encourage further investigation.

Seed ecology enlightens restoration of endemic species: A case study of Actaea kashmiriana from the Himalaya

Lack of sufficient studies on seed ecology of endemic species poses practical hurdles in their habitat restoration programs. Here, we studied the seed ecology traits and regeneration potential of Actaea kashmiriana – an endemic plant species to Kashmir Himalaya. We conducted population sampling of the species at four different sites in Kashmir Himalaya. The seeds showed profuse covering with brownish membranous wings, indicating wind dispersal in the species. The percentage of seed set varied from 67(±0.7) to 72(±0.6) and seed viability from 76(±2.4) to 86(±2.4), with highest being at low-altitude site. We observed a gradual reduction in viability of the seeds over time, and 4 °C temperature optimum for maintaining long-term viability. Gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment (3 mM) showed highest percentage of seed germination and seedling survival. The treatments involving GA3 (2 mM), GA3 (2.5 mM), and GA3 (3 mM) showed highest number of seeds germinated per day as well as seedling vigour index. Mean germination time was significantly reduced to 45 ± 0.92 days under GA3 (3 mM) as compared to the other treatments. For breaking the epicotyl dormancy, 24–25 °C temperature was effective for the emergence of cotyledon. Faster seed germination initiated within 38 and40 days under treatments with GA3 (3 mM) and GA3 in combination with Thiourea respectively. Our results indicate non-deep morpho-physiological dormancy in the species and GA3 likely serves as a substitute for cold stratification. Based on our findings, we outline a protocol for production of quality seedlings in A. kashmiriana, which can steer restoration of the species in this Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and enlighten the restoration of endemic biodiversity elsewhere.

Habitat suitability, range dynamics, and threat assessment of Swertia petiolata D. Don: a Himalayan endemic medicinally important plant under climate change.

In the current era of the anthropocene, climate change is one of the main determinants of species redistribution and biodiversity loss. Worryingly, the situation is alarming for endemic and medicinally important plant species with a narrow distributional range. Therefore, it is pivotal to inspect the influence of accelerated climate change on medicinally important threatened and endemic plant species. Using an ensemble approach, the current study aims at modelling the present distribution and predicting the future potential distribution coupled with the threat assessment of Swertia petiolata-a medicinally important endemic plant species in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Our study revealed that under current climatic scenarios, the suitable habitats for the species occur across the western Himalayan region which includes the north-western Indian states (Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and southern Uttarakhand), northern Pakistan, and north-western Nepal. Also, temperature seasonality (BIO4) and precipitation seasonality (BIO15) are the most significant bioclimatic variables determining the distribution of S. petiolata. Furthermore, the study projected a reduction in the suitable habitats for the species under future changing climatic scenarios with a reduction ranging from - 40.298% under RCP4.5 2050 to - 83.421% under RCP8.5 2070. Most of the habitat reduction will occur in the western Himalayan region. In contrast, some of the currently unsuitable Himalayan regions like northern Uttarakhand will show increasing suitability under climate change scenarios. The current study also revealed that S. petiolata is classified as Near Threatened (NT) following the IUCN criterion B. Hopefully, the present study will provide a robust tool for predicting the cultivation hotspots and devising scientifically effective conservation strategies for this medicinally important plant species in the Himalaya and similar environments elsewhere in the world.

Understanding Species Diversity, Phenology and Environmental Implications of Different Life Forms in Coniferous Forests: A Case Study from Bhallesa Hills of Pir Panjal Mountain, Western Himalaya, India

We assessed, for the first time, the plant assemblages in coniferous forests of temperate and alpine ecosystems of the Himalayas to understand the diversity of species and their phenological behaviours that lead to different growth forms in the climax forest community. In this study, we selected the coniferous forests of Bhallesa Hills, situated in Pir Panjal Mountain (Jammu and Kashmir) of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot as a study area and used the quadrat method to document the floristic diversity over four years (2018–2021). The study sites were divided into four sub-sites (Chilli, Kahal, Chanwari, Gandoh), and at each site, 25 replicated plots (each measuring 2500 m2, 50 × 50 m2) were established for repeated surveys and documentation. We then analysed species diversity, lifeforms, phenology and leaf size spectra of coniferous plant communities. We consulted various pieces of literature to understand native and non-native plants. The results showed that the species diversity and species richness, growth forms and phenology varied in the experimental plots. In total, we found 328 plant species belonging to 228 genera and 78 families from different localities of various growth forms. Approximately 68.51% of the plant species were native, and 31.49%of the species were non-native. In angiosperms, dicotyledon species were found to be dominant, with 83.23% of the total plant species, while the family Asteraceae was common, with 38 species. The biological spectrum analysis showed 29% of the species were chamaephytes, followed by 28% as therophytes and 21% as phanerophytes. We observed that plant communities respond differently to the existing environment drivers, with chamaephyte and therophytes being more tightly linked to temperate mixed-coniferous and alpine ecosystems, affected by climates and the availability of substrates for their growth and existence. The leaf size spectra analyses showed nanophyll (42.81%) as the dominant group. Conservation-prioritised species (IUCN, regional most threatened species in India), such as Taxus wallichiana Zucc., Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth., Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D.Don, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle and Euphorbia obovata Decne were found to be the most endangered plants. The results indicated more indigenous species, but there is a slow process of depletion of wild species, leading to colonisation by exotic alien species. This study indicated forests of the Himalayan regions are degrading at a faster rate, species are showing a shift in phenological behaviour due to anthropogenic factors leading to climate change, and indigenous species need conservation measures.

Plant-pollinator meta-network of the Kashmir Himalaya: Structure, modularity, integration of alien species and extinction simulation

Plant-pollinator studies are increasingly using network analysis to investigate the structure and function of such communities. However, many areas of high biodiversity largely remain unexplored in this way. Our study describes a plant-pollinator meta-network from an understudied biodiversity hotspot, the Kashmir Himalaya, where we specifically investigate plant-pollinator network nestedness and modularity, as well as the influence of alien species and the impacts of simulating species extinctions on network structure. Natural history observations were used to document the meta-network between 230 plant and 80 pollinator species forming 1958 (11% of the possible) interactions. Among the plants Malus domestica and among the pollinators Apis mellifera and A. cerana formed the largest number of interactions with significant influence over the whole network. Network cumulative degree distribution depicted a higher number of degree levels in pollinators than plants. A moderately high number of realized interactions were revealed, thereby indicating potential structural and functional stability in the network. Eight strongly defined modules were observed in the network which varied in their composition. For example, the Ephedra module exclusively comprised of native species whereas the Apis module comprised of all the four different types of interacting species (i.e. native and alien plants and pollinators) and also integrated the highest number of alien species. In the network overall, 40% of interactions were by alien species, reflecting how well these were integrated. Extinction simulations suggested that the network would collapse more quickly when the most connected pollinators are removed, rather than the most connected plant species. Our study is the first assessment of a plant-pollinator network from this Himalayan biodiversity hotspot; and will help to inform the ecological and economic implications of plant-pollinator interactions in an era of global biodiversity crisis.

Water–energy, climate, and habitat heterogeneity mutually drives spatial pattern of tree species richness in the Indian Western Himalaya

Analyzing plant species richness across a broad geographic gradient is critical for understanding the patterns and processes of biodiversity. In view of this, a species richness map was developed by stacking the ranges of 51 tree species along an elevational gradient in the Western Himalaya using stacked species distribution models (SSDMs). Among modeling algorithms available in SSDMs, random forest and artificial neural networks exhibited the best performance (r = 0.81, p &amp;lt; 0.001). The predicted tree species richness distribution pattern revealed a mid-elevation peak at around 2,000 m asl, which is in concordance with the observed richness pattern (R2 = 0.94, p &amp;lt; 0.001). Additionally, structural equation models (SEMs) were used to confirm the key factors that influence tree richness. The results based on SEMs confirm that the elevational pattern of predicted tree species richness is explained by mutual effects of water–energy availability, climate, and habitat heterogeneity. This study also validates that the impact of moisture on tree species richness coincides geographically with climate factors. The results have revealed that water–energy-related variables are likely to impact the species richness directly at higher elevations, whereas the effect is more likely to be tied to moisture at lower elevations. SSDMs provide a good tool to predict a species richness pattern and could help in the conservation and management of high biodiverse areas at different spatial scales. However, more investigation is needed to validate the SSDMs in other parts of the Himalayan region to provide a comprehensive synoptic perspective of Himalayan biodiversity at a larger scale.