Biodiesel Yield Research Articles

Elucidating the scale-up potential of biogenic magnetized nanocatalyst towards intensified biodiesel production

The current investigation delved into biodiesel synthesis from castor oil (CO) employing a magnetic nanocatalyst contrived from waste Citrus limetta peel ash (CLPA@Fe3O4). SEM, TEM, EDAX, XRD, XPS, VSM, and FTIR were used meticulously to analyze the synthesized catalyst. The catalyst’s core–shell arrangement kept its regulated size and shape and enhanced its surface properties, significantly increasing its stability. The optimal biodiesel yield of 97.92 % was accomplished utilizing CLPA@Fe3O4 catalyst through transesterification under the ideal reaction conditions of 30 wt% methanol concentration, the catalyst of 6 wt%, 60 °C temperature, and 3 h reaction time. The thermodynamics study advocated the transesterification process to be endothermic and nonspontaneous, while the kinetic tests were revealed to obey pseudo-first-order kinetics. The transesterification of CO employing the current catalyst was found to have an activation energy of 33.138 kJ mol−1. Nevertheless, an extraneous magnet could recover the prepared magnetic iron oxide-supported nanocatalyst from the reactor, as the catalyst showed a strong magnetization of 31.56 (emu/g). The catalyst showed excellent reusability up to 80 % for 6 consecutive cycles. The turnover frequency of the catalyst was ascertained to be 0.011 mol g−1.h−1, which measures the ability to drive biodiesel synthesis. The conversions from CO to biodiesel were validated via FTIR and GC–MS analysis. It is essential to highlight that biodiesel’s key fuel properties align with the standards set by ASTM D6751, indicating promising prospects for its future industrial use. The life cycle cost analysis of the catalyst and biodiesel, i.e., USD 0.533/kg and USD 1.005/L, indicates excellent potential for commercialization. Lastly, using creative bibliometric analysis to identify the gaps in the literature, the study made recommendations for the synthesis of biodiesel utilizing nanocatalyst.

Comparison of various machine learning techniques for modeling the heterogeneous acid-catalyzed alcoholysis process of biodiesel production from green seed canola oil

Multiple machine learning (ML) algorithms were developed using artificial intelligence, including Linear Regression (LR), Decision Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), and K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), to predict the yield of biodiesel production in an acid-catalyzed alcoholysis process using green seed canola oil. Catalyst loading, methanol-to-oil (M/O) molar ratio, and reaction time were considered as input parameters, while the yield of biodiesel production was selected as the output parameter. The performance of the developed ML models was assessed using evaluation metrics such as the coefficient of determination (R2) and the root mean squared error (RMSE). The R2 values obtained for LR, RF, DT, and KNN models were 0.80, 0.95, 0.97, and 0.84, respectively. Furthermore, the corresponding RMSE values for these models were 2.48, 1.51, 0.89, and 4.51, respectively. According to the results, the DT model exhibited superior accuracy and reliability for predicting biodiesel production compared to the other models. The values of the input variables to potentially yield the highest biodiesel output were identified through a systematic trial-and-error approach using the DT model. The results showed that a biodiesel yield of 88 % can be achieved with 5 wt% catalyst loading, a 22 M/O molar ratio, and a reaction time of 5 hours.

Effect of solar powered MgO/graphene nano catalysed biodiesel production from Scomber scombrus

The aim of the work is to find the efficiency of solar power in biodiesel preparation from mackerel fish. The paper also focusses on the ability of MgO/graphene prepared by one-pot synthesis using combustion methodology. The physicochemical properties of the material were analysed by XRD, N2 sorption studies, BET sorption analysis and SEM. The adsorption studies revealed the porosity of the graphene is intact, and the morphology studies indicated that MgO is uniformly distributed on the graphene surface. The highest biodiesel yield of 98.95% was obtained using the solar-powered Fresnel solar concentrator at 12.30 p.m in 6 min reaction time using 3 wt% MgO/GO catalyst at 65 °C. Conventional heating produced only 75% biodiesel at the same reaction condition, consuming25 min to complete. The solar assisted biodiesel had better HHV of 37.81 MJ/Kg, viscosity of 4.3 mm2/s, pour point of −15 °C, and a density of 0.875 g/mL. The optimized catalyst showed a shelf life of 5 cycles. The results portray the efficacy of natural energy source in alternative liquid fuel production.

Transesterification of mustard oil to biodiesel using activated carbon/Fe2(MoO4)3/K2CO3 as a novel heterogeneous nanocatalyst: Box-Behnken design-based optimization and Gaussian process regression

In this study, activated carbon/Fe2(MoO4)3/K2CO3 was synthesized as a novel heterogeneous catalyst and used for the first time for biodiesel production from mustard oil. The synthesized catalyst was appraised by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX)/Map, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman analyses. The effect of operating parameters including methanol-to-mustard oil ratio (9:1–27:1), temperature (50–75 °C), catalyst concentration (1–6 wt%), and reaction time (1–6 h) on the biodiesel yield was investigated. The optimization of transesterification operating parameters through Response Surface Methodology (RSM) utilizing Box-Behnken design revealed a peak yield of 96.36 ± 0.1 %. This optimal yield was attained under the following conditions: a methanol-to-oil ratio of 21:1, a temperature of 65°C, a catalyst concentration of 4 wt%, and a reaction time of 4 hours. Furthermore, Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) was employed for the prediction of the biodiesel production yield and a satisfactory agreement was observed between the results of RSM and GPR. Reusability experiments indicated that the synthesized catalyst can be regenerated and reused in 4 transesterification reactions without experiencing a significant decrease in yield. The physical properties of biodiesel derived from mustard oil were examined, and it was observed that they were in agreement with ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. According to the results of this study, it can be concluded that biodiesel production from mustard oil using the novel activated carbon/Fe2(MoO4)3/K2CO3 heterogeneous catalyst can be considered as a promising approach for generation of clean energy.

Ultrasound-assisted transesterification of waste cooking oil to biodiesel utilizing banana peel derived heterogeneous catalyst

Scientists are considering substitute energies as a consequence of the increasing global demand for energy. An eco-friendly and high flash point biofuel, biodiesel, can be obtained from different types of animal fats, vegetable oils, and algal oils through transesterification with methanol with the support of a catalyst. The current study focused on exploring a bio-based heterogeneous catalyst, Nendran banana peel (NBP), for biodiesel production from promising feedstocks like waste cooking oil (WCO) using ultrasound-based transesterification. Catalyst morphological characterization showed a microporous structure and shows the minerals like potassium and calcium present in it which help to catalyze the reaction. The resultant biodiesel yield calculated using 1H NMR showed 72.25% conversion. The outcomes of this study showed that the Nendran banana peel can act as a potent catalyst for the biodiesel manufacturing process.Graphical

A Spherical Superhydrophobic Activated Carbon Catalyst for Biodiesel Production ‐Exploring Process Efficiency, Kinetics, Thermodynamics and Life Cycle Cost Analysis

AbstractEngineering the wettability of functional materials holds significant interest, focusing on the need for superhydrophobic catalysts, crucial for their ability to prevent the poisoning of active sites by water, produced in situ or as a by‐product. Herein, for the first time, a superhydrophobic spherical activated carbon (SSAC@PhSO3H) is engineered as a catalyst via a novel synthetic approach and tailored in Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) biodiesel synthesis. With a large surface area (1461 m2 g−1), high acid density (6.26 mmol g−1), and water contact angle (163.4°), the catalyst demonstrates superior performance and remarkable water repellency, firmly establishing its superhydrophobic characteristics. Response Surface Methodology based on the Central Composite Design (RSM‐CCD) approach predicted a maximal biodiesel yield of 98.8% (80 °C, 5 wt%, 15:1 methanol to oil molar ratio (MOMR), and 40 min). Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) estimates biodiesel production cost of 0.37 USD ($) per kg emphasizing high commercial viability. Compared with H2SO4‐sulfonated biochar, SSAC@PhSO3H retains its inherent activity (86.8 ± 0.4% yield in 10th run) and spherical morphology even after nine successive reaction cycles indicating high stability. Nevertheless, JCO biodiesel's fuel properties met European Norm, EN 14 212 and American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM D6757 standards, highlighting its potential for industrial biodiesel production.

Enhancing waste-derived biodiesel yield using recyclable zinc sulfide nanocatalyst: Synthesis, characterization, and process optimization

With the increasing demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources, biodiesel has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional fossil fuels. This study presents a novel approach to enhancing Thevetia peruviana biodiesel (TPB) yield from plant waste by optimizing process variables using Zinc sulfide (ZnS) as a catalyst. Co-precipitation was utilized to synthesize the ZnS nanoparticles, followed by comprehensive characterization using SEM, XRD, EDAX, and FTIR. Response surface methodology was employed to determine optimal values for process parameters, specifically catalyst concentration (CC), oil-to-alcohol ratio (OAR), and process temperature (PT). The results demonstrate that the nanoparticle can be effectively reused over five successive cycles without significant loss of catalytic activity. The optimal condition identified was a CC of 107.7 ppm, OAR of 8.9:1, and PT of 94.6 °C, yielding a TPB of 92.5 %, which was validated through confirmation experiments. The yield of TPB using the nanocatalyst exhibited a 3.6 % increase compared to a typical chemical catalyst. ANOVA results revealed that CC had a 43.9 % influence on biodiesel yield, while OAR and PT had influences of 33.2 % and 22.9 %, respectively. Elemental analysis indicated that TPB biodiesel has a 10.9 times higher oxygen concentration compared to diesel fuel, with GC-MS analysis identifying linoleic acid as the predominant component. The elemental, FTIR, GC-MS, and physicochemical analysis of TPB were found to be comparable to the biodiesel standard. This comprehensive assessment suggests that TPB has the potential to serve as a viable alternative to conventional diesel fuel.

Technoeconomic and environmental impact assessment of industrial scale biodiesel production process from algal oil using a reusable basic ionic liquid magnetic nanocatalyst

A unique magnetically reusable basic ionic liquid nanocatalyst was designed to convert algal oil into biodiesel. The imidazolium-based basic ionic liquid (BIL) was immobilized onto the magnetic nanocomposite (Fe3O4-SiO2), resulting in Fe3O4-SiO2-BIL nanocatalyst with notable properties of large surface area (21.963 m2/g), high saturation magnetization (28.78 emu/g) and high thermal stability. The nanocatalyst effectively facilitated algal oil transesterification with 96.94 % biodiesel yield under methanol: oil ratio of 8.58:1 and a catalyst dosage of 4.59 % at 60.60 °C for 87.42 min. The transesterification reaction proceeded with pseudo-first-order kinetics, featuring a relatively low activation energy. The nanocatalyst showed excellent reusability for eight recycles. A techno-economic analysis demonstrated that industrial-scale biodiesel production from algal feedstock was economically viable with a minimum payback of 2.25 years. The environmental analysis revealed a low carbon footprint with the emission of 0.074 kg CO2 per kg of biodiesel produced. This research presents a sustainable approach for biodiesel production from algal feedstock facilitated by Fe3O4–SiO2–BIL nanocatalyst, offering both environmental and economic benefits.

Glycerol-Free Biodiesel via Catalytic Interesterification: A Pathway to a NetZero Biodiesel Industry

Conventional biodiesel manufacturing uses alcohol as an acyl acceptor, resulting in glycerol as a side product. The increased demand for biodiesel has led to the production of a substantial surplus of glycerol, exceeding the market need. Consequently, glycerol is now being regarded as a byproduct, and in some cases, even as waste. The present study aims to suggest an economically viable and ecologically friendly approach for maintaining the viability of the biodiesel sector. This involves generating an alternative byproduct of higher value, rather than glycerol. Triacetin is produced through the interesterification of triglycerides with methyl acetate, and is a beneficial ingredient to biodiesel, reducing the need for extensive product separation. The primary objective of this research is to improve the interesterification reaction by optimising process parameters to maximise biodiesel production while using sulphuric acid as an economically viable catalyst. The study utilised the Box–Behnken design (BBD) to investigate the influence of various process variables on biodiesel yield, such as reaction time, methyl acetate to oil molar ratio, and catalyst concentration. An optimisation study using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) focused on key process reaction parameters, including the methyl acetate to oil (MA:O) molar ratio, catalyst concentration, and residence time. The best conditions produced a biodiesel blend with a 142% yield at a 12:1 MA:O molar ratio, with 0.1 wt% of catalyst loading within 1.7 h. The established technique is deemed to be undeniably effective, resulting in an efficient biodiesel production process.

Heterogeneous Calcium Oxide Catalytic Filaments for Three-Dimensional Printing: Preparation, Characterization, and Use in Methyl Ester Production.

This study aimed to investigate heterogeneous catalytic filaments of calcium oxide (CaO) for fused deposition modeling three-dimensional (3D) printers. The CaO catalysts were blended with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic to form catalytic filaments. A single-screw filament extruder was used to prepare the filaments, following which their mechanical properties, thermal properties, morphology, catalytic characteristics in biodiesel production, and reusability were evaluated. In accordance with the results, a maximum CaO catalyst content of 15 wt % was recommended to be blended in the ABS pellet. The hardness and compressive strength of these catalytic filaments were shown to be improved. Subsequently, the catalytic filaments with the highest CaO content (15 wt %) were used to produce methyl ester from pretreated sludge palm oil through the transesterification process. To determine the recommended conditions for achieving the highest purity of methyl ester in biodiesel, the process parameters were optimized. A methyl ester purity of 96.58 wt % and a biodiesel yield of 79.7 wt % could be achieved under the recommended conditions of a 9.0:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 75.0 wt % catalytic filament loading, and 4.0 h reaction time. Furthermore, the reusability of the 15 wt % CaO catalytic filaments was evaluated in a batch process with multiple transesterification cycles. The results indicated that the purity of methyl ester dropped to 95.0 wt % only after the fourth cycle. The method used in this study for preparing and characterizing CaO catalytic filaments can potentially serve as a novel approach for constructing biodiesel reactors using 3D printing technology.

Efficient Preparation of Biodiesel Using Sulfonated Camellia oleifera Shell Biochar as a Catalyst.

This study prepared sulfonated Camellia oleifera shell biochar using Camellia oleifera shell agricultural waste as a carbon source, and evaluated its performance as a catalyst for preparing biodiesel. The biochar obtained from carbonizing Camellia oleifera shells at 500 °C for 2 h serves as the carbon skeleton, and then the biochar is sulfonated with chlorosulfonic acid. The sulfonic acid groups are mainly grafted onto the surface of Camellia oleifera shell biochar through covalent bonding to obtain sulfonic acid type biochar catalysts. The catalysts were characterized by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Nitrogen adsorption-desorption Brunel-Emmett-Taylor Theory (BET), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The acid density of the sulfonated Camellia oleifera fruit shell biochar catalyst is 2.86 mmol/g, and the specific surface area is 2.67 m2/g, indicating high catalytic activity. The optimal reaction conditions are 4 wt% catalyst with a 6:1 alcohol to oil ratio. After esterification at 70 °C for 2 h, the yield of biodiesel was 91.4%. Under the optimal reaction conditions, after four repeated uses of the catalyst, the yield of biodiesel still reached 90%. Therefore, sulfonated Camellia oleifera shell biochar is a low-cost, green, non-homogeneous catalyst with great potential for biodiesel production by esterification reaction in future development.

Investigating the impact of alumina nanoparticles in coconut oil distillate biodiesel to lessen emissions in direct injection diesel engine

Petroleum fuels are commonly used for automobiles. However, the continuous depletion and exhaust gas emission causes serious problems. So, there is a need for an alternative eco-friendly fuel. Biodiesel is a type of fuel manufactured through a process called transesterification, which involves converting vegetable oils into a usable form. The process parameters of the transesterification process were optimized using the Taguchi method to achieve maximum biodiesel yield. However, the main problem of biodiesel is its high cost which could be reduced by using low-cost feedstock. To address this challenge, biodiesel (BCFAD) is derived from coconut fatty acid distillate (CFAD), a by-product obtained from refining coconut oil. This work uses BCFAD and BCFAD with Alumina nanoparticles as fuels. Alumina nanoparticles in the mass fraction of 25 ppm, 50 ppm, and 100 ppm are dispersed in BCFAD. The investigation results reveal an increase of 6.5% in brake thermal efficiency for BCFAD with 100 ppm nanoparticles when compared to BCFAD. There is a reduction of 29.29% of hydrocarbon and 34% of Carbon monoxide emissions with BCFAD100 in comparison with diesel. However, there is a marginal increase in NOx emission with the increase in nanoparticles. The heat release rate and cylinder pressure of BCFAD100 are comparable to diesel fuel. It was concluded that the utilization of BCFAD with a nanoparticle dispersion of 100 ppm is suitable for direct use as fuel in diesel engines.

Hazardous waste management of novel non-edible Platycladus orientalis seed oil via recyclable yttria-based phyto-nanocatalyst: A practical approach towards sustainable bioenergy conversion

In current scenario of rising issues of economic crises, ecotoxicity and waste management, the search of novel, waste and non-food biomass for green energy production has become indispensable. This study is concerned with Platycladus orientalis, a novel feedstock with a seed oil concentration of 28 % (w/w), optimized via simulation-based response surface methodology (RSM) for biodiesel production. To enhance catalytic activity during transesterification, novel Yttria-based green metallic oxide, a phyto-nanocatalyst, was synthesized using Platycladus orientalis dried seed cones aqueous extract. The Yttria-based phytonanocatalyst was characterized using FTIR, XRD, SEM, and EDX that confirmed its structural and elemental composition with 12 nm nano-size and demonstrated the high catalytic efficiency. The optimal conditions for biodiesel synthesis were identified as methanol-to-oil ratio (7:1), catalyst concentration (0.14 wt%), reaction time (105 min), and reaction temperature (80 °C) with remarkable biodiesel yield (96 %). The reusability of the Yttria-based green nanoparticles was assessed over six reaction cycles. Methyl ester formation was validated through FTIR, GC–MS, and NMR analyses. The fuel properties were found to fall within the range recommended by the international biodiesel standards i.e. flash point of 90 °C, density of 0.614 kg/L, viscosity of 4.21 cSt, pour point of −8 °C, cloud point of −10 °C, total acid number of 0.124 mg KOH/g and sulfur content of 0.00002 wt%. With its prolific seed production and wide distribution, Platycladus orientalis is a highly recommendable species for sustainable and eco-friendly biodiesel production. This study contributes to the evolving field of green catalysis, offering a viable solution to environmental issues and waste management challenges in the biodiesel industry.

Response surface optimization, kinetics, thermodynamics, and life cycle cost analysis of biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas oil using biomass-based functional activated carbon catalyst

A highly efficient activated porous catalyst, BPAC-500-S, derived from waste banana peels through a novel synthesis involving pyrolysis; and functionalization with 4-benzene diazonium sulphonate, has been developed. For comparison of catalytic activity, the material was also functionalized with sulphuric acid (BPAC-500-SX). The (BPAC-500-S) catalyst underwent impregnation and activation with ZnCl2, and its properties were extensively characterized using BET, SEM, XPS, XRD, FT-IR, and TGA techniques. Comparative analysis of catalysts obtained at different pyrolysis temperatures (400, 500, and 600 °C) revealed that BPAC-500-S pyrolyzed at 500 °C, exhibited maximum surface area (840.83 m2g-1) and sulphur density (4.7 %). Utilizing BPAC-500-S as a catalyst, an efficient process for biodiesel synthesis from Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) was developed, achieving a remarkable 98.91 % conversion, as confirmed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Notably, life cycle cost analysis demonstrated a low biodiesel production cost of $ 0.70/L. The BPAC-500-S catalyst exhibited exceptional reusability maintaining more than 80 % biodiesel yield over seven reaction cycles. This study presents a sustainable and cost-effective approach to biodiesel production, emphasizing the potential of waste-derived catalysts in green and economically viable processes.

Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using Ethanol Produced from Sugar or Dates Syrup

Abstract Global oil prices have risen due to rising energy usage and petroleum depletion. Waste cooking oil is a potential source of biodiesel raw materials. Biodiesel is a source of renewable energy and a fuel that could replace petroleum-derived diesel in the future. The novelty of this study was to investigate the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil using ethanol produced from dates syrup. In this study biodiesel was made from used cooking oil and various alcohols by the transesterification method with different catalysts for comparison. To produce biodiesel from used the transesterification process was carried out by mixing 3 g of the catalyst with 60 ml of alcohol (70%) and adding 300ml of waste cooking oil at a temperature of 60°C. The best result, that had the highest biodiesel yield, which was 302.5 ml, was the biodiesel made from using commercial ethanol as alcohol and KOH as a catalyst. This study indicated that there was no significant difference in the yields of biodiesel and the by-product glycerin between groups, but the density and viscosity of petroleum diesel were much lower than the biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil, meaning that the biodiesel could have more applications than petroleum diesel. It was concluded that the biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil and dates syrup ethanol could be used as an alternative fuel and source of renewable environmentally friendly energy. However, it is considered that more studies are needed to determine the effects of using biodiesel produced on engine performance.

Biodiesel production via simultaneous esterification and transesterification of Periplaneta americana oil with liquid lipase Eversa® transform 2.0

Undeveloped Periplaneta americana oil (acid value 38.32 mg KOH/g) was directly used for one-step production of biodiesel with lipase without acid-pretreatment step for the commercial alkaline process. Biodiesel was produced via simultaneous esterification and transesterification of Periplaneta americana oil in the presence of lipase Eversa® Transform 2.0 (ET2) (12 US$/kg) in solvent-free system. The maximum biodiesel yield of 98.63 % was obtained under the optimized conditions of 32 °C, 8.5 wt.% lipase dosage, 8 h, 6.5/1 methanol/oil molar ratio, and 4 wt.% water. Lipase ET2 was recycled 6 times at > 89.52 % biodiesel yield. Biodiesel yield of 93.94 % was further achieved in a 1 L reactor with 15.08 g/kg lipase/biodiesel. Biodiesel cost was estimated as 589.3 US$/ton. Kinetics study gave activation energy of 24.50 kJ/mol with kinetic Michaelis constant of 1.19 mol/L. The physicochemical properties of biodiesel met both Chinese national and US ASTM standards that could be blended with petro-diesel to be applied in both countries. This study suggests that lipase could directly catalyze waste oils for the production of biodiesel at low temperature.

Application of Microwaves in the Production Process of Biodiesel from Bulk Oil

Abstract Using bulk oil as biodiesel fuel is a waste reduction opportunity that creates economic value and creates alternative fuels to replace diesel fuel. The research was conducted through the transesterification reaction of bulk oil and methanol in batches using microwave heating to speed up the reaction time. The research is expected to show the right performance and response time to achieve optimal biodiesel yield and biodiesel properties, according to the Indonesian Nasional Standard (SNI). The experiment used two power levels (100 and 400 watts) and three reaction times (5, 10 and 15 minutes). Based on the analysis of variance and extended Duncan’s test, microwave power and response time were found to have a significant <0.05 impact on product yield. The highest yield was 93.3%, achieved with a variation of 100 watts and a process time of 10 minutes. The results showed that, except for total glycerol, all quality criteria (density, acid number, saponification rate, methyl ester content, and iodine) met the SNI 7182:2015 standard [17]. It can be concluded that the use of microwaves has the potential to shorten the reaction time of biodiesel production while at the same time achieving high yield and good biodiesel quality.

Hybrid CaO/ZnFe2O4 Modified with Al2O3 as a Green Catalyst for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil

In this work, biodiesel was produced from waste cooking oil (WCO) via a green catalyst of CaO-ZnFe2O4 modified Al2O3. The catalyst was characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray (EDX), SEM-mapping, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses. The catalyst performance was studied in the transesterification reaction of WCO conversion to biodiesel. The catalytic activity increased with the combination of nanoparticles effect and support catalysts obtained biodiesel yield of nano-Al2O3, nano-CaO, ZnFe2O4, CaO-ZnFe2O4, and CaO-ZnFe2O4/Al2O3 is 36.86%, 67.16%, 74.83%, 86.54%, and 93.41%, respectively. The best biodiesel yield was 93.41% with a mass ratio of Al2O3 to CaO-ZnFe2O4 (2:1). The physicochemical properties (acid number, density, kinematic viscosity, flash point, and cetane number) of biodiesel under the optimal conditions agreed with the ASTM standard. These results show that the developed nanocomposite has great potential to reduce biodiesel production costs because derived from WCO. In conclusion, CaO-ZnFe2O4 modified Al2O3 as a catalyst has a high potential for biodiesel production on a large scale.

Characterization of phytosynthesized niobium oxide nanoparticle for efficient conversion of Grewia asiatica L. waste seed oil into sustainable fuel

The production of bioenergy and bioproducts from streams of biowaste has ignited interest in fostering a circular economy worldwide. This study investigates the potential of transforming Grewia asiatica L. waste seed oil into sustainable biodiesel using green-synthesized niobium oxide nanoparticle. Niobium oxide nanocatalyst was synthesized using aqueous leaf extract of Fumaria indica L. Advanced characterization techniques were employed to confirm the pure and nano-scale nature of the synthesized niobium oxide nanocatalyst. The synthesized nanocatalyst exhibited an average particle size of 31 nm, resulting in efficient catalytic activity that persited through the fifth cycle of transesterification. An optimum biodiesel yield of 90% was achieved under reaction conditions of a methanol to oil molar ratio of 9:1, a reaction time of 180 min, a temperature of 60 °C and a catalyst load of 0.32 (wt. %). Results of Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of G. asiatica-derived biodiesel revealed 5, 8-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester as the primary fatty acid methyl ester, with the highest concentration. The fuel properties of G. asiatica-derived biodiesel complied with international standards. The minimal sulphur content of 0.0001% highlights the clean, environmentally benign and cost-effective nature of biodiesel synthesized from G. asiatica waste seed oil. This study contributes to the renewable alternative effort toward transitioning from a linear economy to a circular bioeconomy.

Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper as Heterogeneous Catalyst for Generation of Biodiesel from a Mixture of Multiple Oil Feedstocks

A cost-effective catalyst is essential to reduce the expenses of producing biodiesel. This study is aimed at utilizing the waste of the black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) plant as an efficient catalyst for producing biodiesel from a blend of different edible and inedible oils. The catalyst was developed by igniting the dried material and then subjecting it to calcination at 550°C for 2 h. The feedstock was prepared by mixing the oils in an equivalent ratio for the reaction. Various sophisticated techniques such as XRD, FT-IR, XPS, BET, FESEM-EDX, HRTEM, and SAED were employed to characterize the prepared catalyst. The catalyst’s catalytic activity was assessed by transesterification of the oil mixture. The optimized transesterification conditions were 10 wt% of catalyst loading, 9 : 1 of MTOR, 65°C of reaction temperature, and 1.6±0.14 h of reaction time producing 94.79±0.27% of biodiesel yield and 96.86% oil conversion. The calcined catalyst’s alkaline solubility was found to be 2.77 mmol/g, basicity as 0.13 mmol/g, and 14.57 per hour as the turnover frequency (TOF). Catalyst reusability was conducted and found that the catalyst could be reprocessed up to three successive cycles. The synthesized biodiesel’s physicochemical characteristics were assessed and found to conform to ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 requirements.