Biocultural Restoration Research Articles

Restoration of an Indigenous aquaculture system can increase reef fish density and fisheries harvest in Hawai‘i

AbstractWhile aquaculture is increasingly considered a globally important source of protein, growing fish for human consumption is not new. Indigenous aquaculture systems, such as loko i‘a (fishponds), were successfully implemented in ancient Hawai‘i and represent a technological advancement designed to sustain a growing human population while maintaining—instead of supplanting—natural ecosystem function in the process of increasing food availability. Biocultural restoration efforts in Hawai‘i, aimed at revitalizing Indigenous stewardship, have included restoration of loko i‘a to sustainably increase the availability of local seafood. While it is clear from historical accounts that loko i‘a can augment fish within estuaries, their role as a nursery ground that supplements surrounding fish populations and fisheries harvest (i.e., providing spillover) remains unstudied in the current literature. This study aimed to test the extent to which loko i‘a restoration can supplement fish populations and fisheries harvest both inside the loko i‘a and in the surrounding waters. A food web model was constructed representing nutrients, phytoplankton, fish, and fisheries in three distinct habitats. The model, set in Kāne‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i, revealed that there were interactive effects of the area under loko i‘a management, bay fishing effort, and fish dispersal rates on fish density and fisheries harvest. We found that increasing the area under loko i‘a management not only increased loko i‘a fish density and fisheries harvest but also created the potential to supplement bay fish populations and fisheries harvest under certain scenarios. We also identified a trade‐off whereby at high fish dispersal rates, a larger area under loko i‘a management provided maximal benefits to the bay fish population and fisheries harvest, while at low fish dispersal rates, a smaller area under loko i‘a management was more beneficial to bay fish populations and harvest. As expected, loko i‘a also created a surplus of fish within the pond. Our results support the idea that restoration of Indigenous aquaculture systems can positively impact conservation efforts and food security by increasing local fish availability, through both direct production and supplementation of surrounding fish stocks.

Recognising Indigenous plant-use histories for inclusive biocultural restoration

Indigenous Peoples have manipulated environments and species for millennia. However, restoration science often overlooks ancient human plant dispersal, niche construction, and selection pressures that may have resulted in plant ‘cultural traits’. Concerted efforts to acknowledge Indigenous plant-use histories in restoration could help to abate the coextinction of species and cultures.

Restoring fire‐degraded social forests via biocultural approaches: a key strategy to safeguard the Amazon legacy

Wildfires have emerged as an escalating source of tropical forest degradation with a cascade of negative consequences for the sustainable development of tropical regions. This is particularly the case in the Amazon forest region as wildfires have already degraded a considerable extension of both secondary and old‐growth forests, including “social forests” managed by traditional communities into protected areas. Here, we advocate in favor of a neglected perspective recognizing wildfires as an escalating threat of unanticipated but certainly devasting impacts on social forests, communal territories, the social reproduction of local/traditional forest‐based communities, and the network of protected areas devoted to safeguard the Amazon forest legacy, including ecosystem services of global relevance such as climate regulation. In response to this prognosis, we call for a research agenda focused on fire drivers, impacts, management, and mitigation, including the establishment of biocultural restoration initiatives/pilot programs in communal territories. Initiatives should integrate co‐produced goals, approaches, and technology to economically, socially, and politically empower those stakeholders with an effective interest in forest persistence although they are already vulnerable. Finally, we propose a governance model connecting key stakeholders to scale up fire‐related biocultural restoration in the Amazon region with the potential to produce timely and globally relevant knowledge and lessons. We hope our ideas stimulate key stakeholders to promote biocultural initiatives able to guarantee the emergence of sustainable territories and thus safeguard the climate‐buffering Amazon forest and its legacy for the sake of both local and global society.

Forest species for biocultural restoration in eastern Amazon, Brazil

Amazon deforestation damages nature, people, and their closer biocultural relationship, eroding fundamental elements for its reproduction. The recognition and use of traditional knowledge to plan and implement restoration efforts are essential to its success. This study identified forest tree species of biocultural value for indigenous communities, quilombolas, and settled farmers in Maranhão state, eastern Brazilian Amazon. Semi-structured interviews, informal conversations, Free Lists, and guided walks were carried out in three different landscapes to identify species with ecological importance and/or use-value according to local communities’ perceptions. Eight categories of species use were defined (food, woody, medicinal, income, cultural, hunting, honey, and energy); and the Smith Salience Index (S) was utilized to identify species with higher importance. A total of 58 native trees (S > 0.1) were listed as biocultural species, five of which were cited for ecological importance only, without a use-value associated. The highest number of species with cultural salience (S > 0.1) was reported in the indigenous group (47), followed by settlers (11) and quilombolas (9). Among the indigenous, we identified a higher number of uses for the same species, and a remarkable spiritual relationship with plants from their cosmological vision. The reproduction of biocultural values in societies needs to receive more attention in the restoration science and praxis. The identification of species of biocultural value can serve as an important ally for the assertive design of conservation and restoration initiatives.

Setting Up Roots: Opportunities for Biocultural Restoration in Recently Inhabited Settings

Biocultural approaches to restoration, which recognize the unique ways of understanding of socioecological challenges by Indigenous and local communities, have gained traction in recent decades. Yet, less attention has focused on biocultural opportunities where there is no Indigenous population or traditional knowledge to draw upon. This ethnographic study inductively assesses data gathered from interviews with farm owners on Isabela Island in the Galápagos Islands, where human presence is a function of recent migration. These interviews, corroborated with archival information and participant observation, center on farmer attitudes regarding restoration of Scalesia cordata, a highly endangered plant species, endemic to Isabela. The resulting analysis identified four themes of overlap with the biocultural restoration literature: cultural keystone species, sense of place, informational pathways, and recognition of socio-ecological feedback loops. Findings indicate that Scalesia remains a valued cultural keystone species providing tangible and intangible benefits to local residents, and its survival serves as a metaphor for farmers’ own wellbeing. Thus, even locations where place-based knowledge by a native population is not evident, critical biocultural elements exist that can be integrated into restoration efforts. Farmers also exhibited clear connections between restoration and tourism in Galápagos, paving the way for the application of biocultural theory to the analysis of tourism-supported restoration efforts elsewhere.

A Hawaiian Tropical Dry Forest Regenerates: Natural Regeneration of Endangered Species under Biocultural Restoration

Tropical dry forests (TDFs) are among the most at-risk ecosystems globally. In Hawai‘i, more than 45% of TDF species are threatened or endangered. Despite decades of active TDF restoration, there remains limited information on the potential for long-term success, since there are few studies of natural regeneration. We assess natural regeneration of endangered plants at Ka‘ūpūlehu dryland forest, a Hawaiian biocultural restoration initiative. Drawing on 6 annual censuses we (1) assess rates and patterns of natural regeneration across species and as a function of rainfall and (2) identify bottlenecks. Our surveys document natural recruits of 11 of the 12 endangered species first outplanted 15–20 years ago. Higher annual rainfall increased the number of new recruits per year and growth, but decreased survival of larger recruits. The total number of natural recruits increased three-fold over the study period and varied across species. For nearly half of the species, we documented a second generation of recruits. Successes appear to be a function of time, including a changing microclimate and adaptive management practices. Remaining bottlenecks include lack of seed dispersal, and seed predation and herbivory by introduced species. The success at Ka‘ūpūlehu highlights the potential for TDF restoration and the value of a biocultural approach.

Biocultural restoration improves delivery of ecosystem services in social‐ecological landscapes

Increasing local people and indigenous communities' participation on restoration programs is widely recommended as a way to increase restoration long‐term benefits and local people's commitment with restored lands. Here, we demonstrate how traditional knowledge can provide crucial information on usefulness of plant species that increases direct value of forest and landscape restoration programs. Our study analyzed secondary data from 73 studies that assessed indigenous and local knowledge regarding plant's utility across the densely populated dry forest of the Brazilian Caatinga. Our results suggest that highly valued plants represent a relatively small number of useful species (52 out of 632 useful species) that account for more than half of the plant services (i.e. functional space represented by the uses people give to plants). Interestingly, these plants belonged to closely related lineages, suggesting that people must select plants based on phylogenetically conserved traits that provide utility. We propose that accounting for indigenous and local knowledge in early phases of restoration process such as species selection can both maximize classical restoration targets (e.g. species diversity) and increase delivery of ecosystem services to forest‐dependent people. Such an interdisciplinary integration moves us a step closer to ambitious targets set for global ecosystem restoration based on fair and inclusive participation of indigenous people and local communities.

Biocultural restoration of Hawaiian tropical dry forests

Biocultural conservation approaches recognise the relationships between nature and humans, and are built on local cultural perspectives. Hawai‘i has been described as a model for biocultural conservation, and a biocultural approach can be applied in endangered ecosystems such as tropical dry forests that are often found in human settlement areas. The extent of native tropical dry forest cover remaining in Hawai‘i is as low as 1% on some islands, with 45% of the tropical dry forest plant species at risk of extinction. Despite the long-running relationship of tropical dry forests with ‘Indigenous people and local communities’, there has been little assessment of the potential social–ecological outcomes of a biocultural approach to tropical dry forest restoration. Two Hawai‘i forest restoration projects, located within Ka‘ūpūlehu and Auwahi, have been excluding ungulates and removing alien plant species for >20 years, and have applied biocultural approaches. Drawing on these two sites as case-studies, we explore the motivations for, and components of, a biocultural approach, and highlight four categories (ecological, social, cultural, and spiritual) of biocultural measures of success. We show that a biocultural approach to restoration can provide purpose and meaning to a person’s relationship to place, and can transform conservation biology through Indigenous perspectives. We also address challenges and provide recommendations to those interested in engaging in a biocultural approach.

Restoring the forest revives our culture: Ecosystem services and values for ecological restoration across the rural-urban nexus in South Africa

The integration of indigenous viewpoints in Ecosystem Service frameworks and planning processes are often lacking, necessitating a need to integrate diverse perspectives for knowledge coproduction. The study adopts a comparative analysis to explore local perceptions of the diversity of forest ecosystem services and values for ecological restoration among urban and rural Vhavenda groups in the Vhembe District of South Africa. We apply the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) framework to structure ecosystem services to explore how well indigenous perspectives are represented. Rural populations identified the provisioning services of forests as more important compared to urban populations to support subsistence lifestyles with a higher dependence on natural resources. Rural values for ecological restoration were dominated by biocultural restoration objectives to revive indigenous knowledge and local practices and inter-generational learning experiences. Trade-offs exist among urban groups where forests are valued for employment and tourism and rural groups where intangible values are associated with the spiritual importance of sacred forests. However, commonalities between rural and urban residents persist with collective objectives to restore biodiversity and ecosystem services, enhance collaborations between stakeholders and stimulate education experiences that draw on indigenous and scientific knowledge of forest ecosystems. Our study points to the challenges of ecosystem service valuation and considers the importance of integrating stakeholder values for informing deliberative decision-making.

Genetic erosion in traditional rice agro-ecosystems in Southern Philippines: drivers and consequences

AbstractThis paper examines genetic erosion in rice landraces thriving in traditional smallholder agricultural systems in the Sarangani uplands, Philippines. In these marginal areas, the crop is closely interwoven with tribal culture and is vital in ensuring food security among upland households. Field visits unveiled high varietal diversity for upland rice and a rich tapestry of indigenous knowledge associated with its cultivation and use. Study results, however, revealed the tapering of the crop's genetic base due to farmers' changing priorities, pest infestation, weakening seed supply systems, shift to cash crops, natural calamities, environmental degradation, government programmes and peace and order problems. Consequently, these pressures undermined traditional agricultural systems in Sarangani upland communities causing food and water scarcity, hunger and suffering on a catastrophic scale. Interdisciplinary strategies aimed at simultaneously averting further varietal losses and environmental degradation while improving human well-being are therefore warranted. Furthermore, making traditional rice farming a lucrative endeavour will induce the younger generation to remain in the uplands and choose farming as a profession. This way, biocultural restoration of agriculture will be attained and the continued presence of the tribal groups in the Sarangani uplands will be ensured for a very long time.

Biocultural restoration in Hawaiʻi also achieves core conservation goals

Biocultural approaches to restoration have demonstrated multiple benefits for human communities, but the ecological benefits and trade-offs involved have received little attention. Using a case study from Hawaiʻi, we examined if forest restoration aimed at reviving and maintaining cultural interactions with the forest is compatible with other priority conservation metrics. We identified species of high biocultural value for an Indigenous (Native Hawaiian) community, and then tested if these species also have high conservation value in terms of their biogeographic origin, ability to support native wildlife, and ability to persist independently within the restored context. Additionally, we tested if an assemblage of species with high biocultural value can also support high functional trait diversity. We found bioculturally important species to have high conservation values for all metrics tested, except for the ability to conserve rare or endangered endemic species. However, a broader application of biocultural conservation, such as the revival of the “sacred forest” concept, can address this priority as part of a mosaic of different species assemblages and levels of access. We also found that biocultural value may, at least in part, be a function of coevolutionary time: the length of time over which a community has interacted with a given species. Given that forests are invaluable to many Indigenous communities and, given the existential threats many of these communities currently face, we suggest that forests containing species assemblages of high biocultural value, such as those in Hawaiʻi, be considered as critical cultural habitat.

Hawai‘i in Focus: Navigating Pathways in Global Biocultural Leadership

As an introduction to the special issue on “Biocultural Restoration in Hawai‘i,” this manuscript provides background for term ‘biocultural restoration,’ and contextualizes it within the realms of scholarship and conservation. It explores two key themes related to the topic. First, “Earth as Island, Island as Earth,” scales up an island-borne concept of sustainability into a global context. Second, “Hawai‘i as a Biocultural Leader,” examines the reasons behind the global trend of looking to the most isolated landmass on the planet for solutions to global sustainability issues. We conclude by summarizing the content of the special issue and pointing out the historic nature of its publication. It is the largest collection to date of scientific papers authored by Native Hawaiians and kama‘āina (Hawai‘i-grown) scholars, and more than 50% of both lead and total authorship are women. This Special Issue, therefore, represents a big step forward for under-represented demographics in science. It also solidifies, as embodied in many of the papers in this Special Issue, indigenous methodologies that prioritize working relationships and practical applications by directly involving those on the front lines of biocultural conservation and restoration.

Kū Hou Kuapā: Cultural Restoration Improves Water Budget and Water Quality Dynamics in Heʻeia Fishpond

In Hawaiʻi, the transition from customary subsistence flooded taro agroecosystems, which regulate stream discharge rate trapping sediment and nutrients, to a plantation-style economy (c. the 1840s) led to nearshore sediment deposition—smothering coral reefs and destroying adjacent coastal fisheries and customary fishpond mariculture. To mitigate sediment transport, Rhizophora mangle was introduced in estuaries across Hawaiʻi (c. 1902) further altering fishpond ecosystems. Here, we examine the impact of cultural restoration between 2012–2018 at Heʻeia Fishpond, a 600–800-year-old walled fishpond. Fishpond water quality was assessed by calculating water exchange rates, residence times, salinity distribution, and abundance of microbial indicators prior to and after restoration. We hypothesized that R. mangle removal and concomitant reconstruction of sluice gates would increase mixing and decrease bacterial indicator abundance in the fishpond. We find that Heʻeia Fishpond’s physical environment is primarily tidally driven; wind forcing and river water volume flux are secondary drivers. Post-restoration, two sluice gates in the northeastern region account for >80% of relative water volume flux in the fishpond. Increase in water volume flux exchange rates during spring and neap tide and shorter minimum water residence time corresponded with the reconstruction of a partially obstructed 56 m gap together with the installation of an additional sluice gate in the fishpond wall. Lower mean salinities post-restoration suggests that increased freshwater water volume influx due to R. mangle removal. Spatial distribution of microbial bio-indicator species was inversely correlated with salinity. Average abundance of Enterococcus and Bacteroidales did not significantly change after restoration efforts, however, average abundance of a biomarker specific to birds nesting in the mangroves decreased significantly after restoration. This study demonstrates the positive impact of biocultural restoration regimes on water volume flux into and out of the fishpond, as well as water quality parameters, encouraging the prospect of revitalizing this and other culturally and economically significant sites for sustainable aquaculture in the future.

Biocultural Restoration of Traditional Agriculture: Cultural, Environmental, and Economic Outcomes of Lo‘i Kalo Restoration in He‘eia, O‘ahu

There are growing efforts around the world to restore biocultural systems that produce food while also providing additional cultural and ecological benefits. Yet, there are few examples of integrated assessments of these efforts, impeding understanding of how they can contribute to multi-level sustainability goals. In this study, we collaborated with a community-based non-profit in He‘eia, O‘ahu to evaluate future scenarios of traditional wetland and flooded field system agriculture (lo‘i kalo; taro fields) restoration in terms of locally-relevant cultural, ecological, and economic outcomes as well as broader State of Hawai‘i sustainability goals around food, energy, and water. Families participating in the biocultural restoration program described a suite of community and cultural benefits stemming from the process of restoration, including enhanced social connections, cultural (re)connections to place, and physical and mental well-being, which inspired their sustained participation. We also found benefits in terms of local food production that have the potential to provide economic returns and energy savings over time, particularly when carried out through a hybrid non-profit and family management model. These benefits were coupled with potential changes in sediment and nutrient retention with implications for water quality and the health of an important downstream fish pond (loko i‘a) and coral reef social-ecological system. Compared with the current land cover (primarily invasive grasses), results suggest that full restoration of lo‘i kalo would decrease sediment export by ~38%, but triple nitrogen export due to organic fertilizer additions. However, compared with an urban scenario, there were clear benefits of agricultural restoration in terms of reduced nitrogen and sediment runoff. In combination, our results demonstrate that a biocultural approach can support the social and financial sustainability of agricultural systems that provide multiple benefits valued by the local community and non-profit while also contributing to statewide sustainability goals.

The Role of Breadfruit in Biocultural Restoration and Sustainability in Hawai‘i

The Hawaiian Islands today are faced with a complex mix of sustainability challenges regarding food systems. After European arrival, there was a change of dietary customs and decline in traditional Hawaiian agriculture along with the cultural mechanisms which sustained them. Recently, there has been a resurgence for local food and culture alongside an enthusiasm for breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)—a Polynesian staple crop. To investigate the role of breadfruit and biocultural restoration in Hawai‘i, we conducted surveys and interviews with local breadfruit producers. Overall, we found that breadfruit has the potential to provide holistic, practical and appropriate solutions to key issues in Hawai‘i, including food security, environmental degradation and public health, while simultaneously lending to the revival of cultural norms and social relationships. As breadfruit cultivation expands rapidly in Hawai‘i, the opportunities for increased social and environmental benefits can be realized if appropriately encouraged.

The Moku System: Managing Biocultural Resources for Abundance within Social-Ecological Regions in Hawaiʻi

Through research, restoration of agro-ecological sites, and a renaissance of cultural awareness in Hawaiʻi, there has been a growing recognition of the ingenuity of the Hawaiian biocultural resource management system. The contemporary term for this system, “the ahupuaʻa system”, does not accurately convey the nuances of system function, and it inhibits an understanding about the complexity of the system’s management. We examined six aspects of the Hawaiian biocultural resource management system to understand its framework for systematic management. Based on a more holistic understanding of this system’s structure and function, we introduce the term, “the moku system”, to describe the Hawaiian biocultural resource management system, which divided large islands into social-ecological regions and further into interrelated social-ecological communities. This system had several social-ecological zones running horizontally across each region, which divided individual communities vertically while connecting them to adjacent communities horizontally; and, thus, created a mosaic that contained forested landscapes, cultural landscapes, and seascapes, which synergistically harnessed a diversity of ecosystem services to facilitate an abundance of biocultural resources. “The moku system”, is a term that is more conducive to large-scale biocultural restoration in the contemporary period, while being inclusive of the smaller-scale divisions that allowed for a highly functional system.

ʻĀina Momona, Honua Au Loli—Productive Lands, Changing World: Using the Hawaiian Footprint to Inform Biocultural Restoration and Future Sustainability in Hawai‘i

Pre-Western-contact Hawai‘i stands as a quintessential example of a large human population that practiced intensive agriculture, yet minimally affected native habitats that comprised the foundation of its vitality. An explicit geospatial footprint of human-transformed areas across the pre-contact Hawaiian archipelago comprised less than 15% of total land area, yet provided 100% of human needs, supporting a thriving Polynesian society. A post-contact history of disruption of traditional land use and its supplanting by Western land tenure and agriculture culminated in a landscape less than 250 years later in which over 50% of native habitats have been lost, while self-sufficiency has plummeted to 15% or less. Recapturing the ‘āina momona (productive lands) of ancient times through biocultural restoration can be accomplished through study of pre-contact agriculture, assessment of biological and ecological changes on Hawaiian social-ecological systems, and conscious planned efforts to increase self-sufficiency and reduce importation. Impediments include the current tourism-based economy, competition from habitat-modifying introduced species, a suite of agricultural pests severely limiting traditional agriculture, and climate changes rendering some pre-contact agricultural centers suboptimal. Modified methods will be required to counteract these limitations, enhance biosecurity, and diversify agriculture, without further degrading native habitats, and recapture a reciprocal Hawaiian human-nature relationship.

Nā Kilo ʻĀina: Visions of Biocultural Restoration through Indigenous Relationships between People and Place

Within the realm of multifaceted biocultural approaches to restoring resource abundance, it is increasingly clear that resource-management strategies must account for equitable outcomes rooted in an understanding that biological and social-ecological systems are one. Here, we present a case study of the Nā Kilo ʻĀina Program (NKA)—one approach to confront today’s complex social, cultural, and biological management challenges through the lens of biocultural monitoring, community engagement, and capacity building. Through a series of initiatives, including Huli ʻIa, Pilinakai, Annual Nohona Camps, and Kūkaʻi Laulaha International Exchange Program, NKA aims to empower communities to strengthen reciprocal pilina (relationships) between people and place, and to better understand the realistic social, cultural, and ecological needs to support ʻāina momona, a state of thriving, abundant and productive people and places. After 10 years of implementation, NKA has established partnerships with communities, state/federal agencies, and local schools across the Hawaiian Islands to address broader social and cultural behavior changes needed to improve resource management. Ultimately, NKA creates a platform to innovate local management strategies and provides key contributions to guiding broader indigenous-driven approaches to conservation that restore and support resilient social-ecological systems.

The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System

Social-ecological system theory draws upon concepts established within the discipline of ecology, and applies them to a more holistic view of a human-in-nature system. We incorporated the keystone concept into social-ecological system theory, and used the quantum co-evolution unit (QCU) to quantify biocultural elements as either keystone components or redundant components of social-ecological systems. This is done by identifying specific elements of biocultural diversity, and then determining dominance within biocultural functional groups. The “Hawaiian social-ecological system” was selected as the model of study to test this concept because it has been recognized as a model of human biocomplexity and social-ecological systems. Based on both quantified and qualified assessments, the conclusions of this research support the notion that taro cultivation is a keystone component of the Hawaiian social-ecological system. It further indicates that sweet potato cultivation was a successional social-ecological keystone in regions too arid to sustain large-scale taro cultivation, and thus facilitated the existence of an “alternative regime state” in the same social-ecological system. Such conclusions suggest that these biocultural practices should be a focal point of biocultural restoration efforts in the 21st century, many of which aim to restore cultural landscapes.

I Ka Wā Ma Mua: The Value of a Historical Ecology Approach to Ecological Restoration in Hawai‘i

Human activity has altered nearly every landscape on earth, and ecological restoration to repair degraded ecosystems has become a conservation necessity. Hawai‘i is a microcosm for intense landscape change, where levels of native biodiversity and threats to it are among the highest in the world, and where Kānaka Maoli (Hawai‘i's indigenous people), who stewarded these lands for a millennium, currently face massive inequalities. Consequently, biocultural restoration has emerged as a method to reciprocally restore ecological and cultural integrity and is especially applicable in Hawai‘i's sizeable invasivedominated areas. Since Kānaka Maoli are an inseparable part of every land and seascape in Hawai‘i, any ecological restoration project has the potential to use a biocultural restoration approach. However, most restoration approaches are purely ecological, and for many conservation practitioners a sociocultural understanding of the landscape can seem inaccessible. In this article, we discuss the value of a historical ecology approach (understanding the interaction between people and landscapes over time) for successful restoration and management of biocultural landscapes in Hawai‘i. We use a case study in Kahalu‘u, Kona, to outline historical ecology methods and available resources in Hawai‘i, including written documents, maps, imagery, archaeological studies, and interviews, and discuss applications of this approach on-the-ground. Potential benefits of employing this approach include expanding knowledge of reference conditions, understanding practices contributing to landscape function over space and time, and building meaningful relationships to engaging community around a site. We argue that a historical ecology approach is readily adoptable into ecological restoration in Hawai‘i, especially in its human-dominated landscapes.