Biochar-based Catalyst Research Articles

Migration and catalytic viscosity reduction of biochar-based catalyst fluid in heavy oil reservoir pores

The method for reducing heavy oil viscosity through catalysts has remained experimental. Catalyst aggregation in reservoirs is a challenging issue. This study prepares catalyst fluids with both hydrophilic and oleophilic properties and uses dispersants to inhibit aggregation. Stability is assessed using direct observation and an ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer, with results showing that a dispersant concentration of 0.05 wt. % stabilizes catalyst fluids. Micromodel experiments are conducted to investigate the catalytic performance and dispersion characteristics of catalyst fluids under various conditions. A post-processing method based on the hue, saturation, and value color space for image recognition and error calculation is proposed to analyze the migration and sweeping effects of catalyst fluids. This method involves identifying images captured by a digital camera, calculating area ratios, and determining recognition errors. The results show that catalyst fluids exhibit the best viscosity reduction ratio (80.0%) and the largest dispersion area ratio (55.7%) when the catalyst concentration is 4 wt. %, the injection velocity is 0.01 ml/min, the reaction temperature is 200 °C, and the reaction time is 24 h. With the increase in injection velocity, the viscosity reduction effect becomes worse. The viscosity reduction effect is improved with the increase in reaction temperature. With the growth of reaction time, the viscosity reduction effect increases and then becomes gentle. The combined mechanism of catalytic viscosity reduction and sweeping effects of catalyst fluids in porous media is proposed. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the large-scale development of heavy oil catalytic viscosity reduction.

Biochar-Based Catalyst Derived from Corn Husk Waste for Efficient Hydrogen Generation via NaBH4 Hydrolysis

Biochar-Based Catalyst Derived from Corn Husk Waste for Efficient Hydrogen Generation via NaBH4 Hydrolysis

In-situ and ex-situ selective catalysis of biochar-based catalysts for the production of high-quality bio-oil and H2-rich gas from tobacco stem

Optimizing the catalytic pyrolysis process is a promising approach to enhance the quality of the resulting products. Thus, four metals (Ni, Fe, Co, Cu) were loaded on biochar support to prepare biochar-based catalysts, and the mechanism of its effect on quality improvement of bio-oil and pyrolysis gas during in-situ and ex-situ pyrolysis of tobacco stem was investigated. The results showed that the biochar-based catalyst has high selectivity for H2-rich and phenols production during in-situ pyrolysis, while the phenols content reached 57.99 % and H2 content reached 49.91 % in Fe@BC group. It is highly selective to H2-rich and N-containing compounds during ex-situ pyrolysis, and the content of N-containing compounds reached 47.23 % and the content of H2 reached 47.59 % in the Ni@BC group. This contributes to the efficient use of high-quality bio-oils and the production of clean gases. Biochar-based catalysts hold significant potential for the pyrolysis industry, paving the way for large-scale production and application of high-quality pyrolysis products.

Synergistic activation of peroxymonosulfate by 3D CoNiO2/Co core-shell structure biochar catalyst for sulfamethoxazole degradation

In this study, a 3D CoNiO2/Co core–shell structure biochar catalyst derived from walnut shell was synthesized by hydrothermal and ion etching methods. The prepared BC@CoNi-600 catalyst exhibited exceptional peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation. The system achieved 100 % degradation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX). The reactive oxygen species in the BC@CoNi-600/PMS system included SO4−, OH, and O2−. Density functional theory calculations explored the synergistic effects between nickel–cobalt bimetallic and carbon matrix during PMS activation. The unique 3D core–shell structure of BC@CoNi-600 features an outer nickel–cobalt bimetallic layer with exceptional PMS adsorption capacity, while protecting the zero-valence Co of the inner layer from oxidation. Based on the experimental-data, machine learning modeling mechanism, and information theory, a nonlinear modeling method was proposed. This study utilizes a machine learning approach to investigate the degradation of SMX in complex aquatic environments. This study synthesized a novel biochar-based catalyst for activated PMS and provided unique insights into its environmental applications.

Peanut-shell-derived biochar mediated peracetic acid activation for the elimination of acetaminophen via an electron-transfer regime

Biochar-based heterogeneous activation of disinfectant peracetic acid (PAA) is an attractive and promising route for micropollutant elimination in water, yet the underlying activation mechanism is still scarce. In this study, PAA was first catalyzed by peanut shell-derived biochar (PSBC) to degrade acetaminophen (ACP). The enhancement of ACP removal was triggered by PAA activation, while the coexisted H2O2 was unexpected to be an adverse factor owing to its occupation of active sites. Higher dosages of PSBC (0–0.30 g/L) and PAA (0–4.0 mM) favored the destruction of ACP, and the activation energy (41.8 kJ/mol) of PSBC/PAA system is lower than that of the thermal or microwave activated PAA system. The experimental results demonstrate that the metastable complex PSBC-PAA* dominated ACP elimination through an electron transfer mechanism. The surface –OH group was validated to be the key active site for PAA activation. Surprisingly, the actual water matrices present a negligible effect and the promotion of HCO3− ion on ACP removal was even observed. Based on the identified intermediates, the transformation of ACP was further proposed with the formation of polymeric products via oxidative coupling reactions. The findings not only shed light on the mechanism of PAA activated by the biochar-based catalyst but also contribute to a novel perspective on future PAA studies in contamination remediation.

Catalytic pyrolysis of wood dust for monophenol over macroalgal biochar-based catalyst: Effects of activation agents and atmospheres during catalyst synthesis on its performance

After introducing heteroatoms into the carbon material skeleton, the performance of carbocatalyst during catalytic pyrolysis of biomass for monophenol production is significantly improved. Algae, as a carbon source with intrinsic nitrogen content, is well-identified as a suitable raw material for preparing heteroatom-doped carbocatalyst. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of different alkaline activation agents (KOH/NaOH) and gas atmospheres (N2/CO2) during the carbonization-activation synthesis process of macroalgal biochar-based catalysts (MBBCs) on their properties and performances. Characterizations of carbocatalysts were carried out via BET and XPS analyses to investigate the porous structures and surface functional groups. Results showed that CO2, as a weakly oxidizing atmosphere, can promote the formation of porous structure of MBBCs. However, the promotion is not as strong as that of chemical activation agents (KOH/NaOH). Furthermore, KOH can promote the formation of porous structure more strongly than NaOH, but NaOH can substantially enhance the formation of surface oxygen‑nitrogen groups compared to KOH. All the MBBCs exhibited the increment of monophenols in the bio-oil obtained from catalytic pyrolysis of wood dust, especially phenol, o-cresol, and p-cresol. Amongst, the biochar-based catalyst activated with NaOH in CO2 atmosphere was the most effective one in promoting monophenols content (up to 59.46 %). Compared with the control group (without catalyst), the phenol content was increased from 5.03 % to 19.40 %. Moreover, it is found that the catalytic performance was positively correlated with the CO species percentage on the surface of MBBCs. The macroalgal biochar-based catalyst has an excellent catalytic performance, which is of great significance for achieving the complete utilization of algae and thereby improving the quality of catalytic pyrolysis products.

Electron transfer-mediated peroxymonosulfate activation through monoatomic Fe–pyridinic N4 moiety in biochar-based catalyst for electron-rich pollutants degradation in groundwater

Pollution of groundwater by electron-rich refractory organic pollutants (e-ROPs) is detrimental to ecological integrity and human health. Biochar (BC)-based single-atom Fe catalysts (Fe–SACs) triggering nonradical peroxymonosulfate (PMS) process has shown great potential in addressing this problem. Nevertheless, the successful formation and precise regulation of active sites on BC remain formidable challenges. Herein, co-pyrolysis of BC derived from shrimp shells and N-containing supramolecular organic frameworks with a hexagonal cavity structure of Fe3+–N3 (Fe–SOFs) was, for the first time, used to prepare an efficient and inexpensive BC-based Fe–SAC (Fe–MCA@SS). The Fe–N bond was successfully grafted from Fe–SOFs onto BC and subsequently transformed into monoatomic Fe–pyridinic N4. Moreover, Fe–MCA@SS successfully triggered an efficient nonradical PMS process, degrading 94.5 % of aniline (AN) within 5 min. Mediated electron transfer (MET) mechanism was primarily responsible for AN removal. MET was attributed to the following factors: the synergistic effect of the stronger chemical adsorption of PMS with an Fe atom in Fe–pyridinic N4 active sites, the higher redox potential of [Fe–MCA@SS/PMS]*, and the value of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of AN being larger than the value of highest occupied molecular orbital of [Fe–MCA@SS/PMS]*. This study sheds new light on the preparation of BC-based SACs catalyst with efficient nonradical oxidation ability and an excellent feasibility to remove electron-rich organic pollutants in groundwater.

Application of biochar in electro-Fenton process: Advantages and recent advancements

The electro-Fenton (EF) process is a well-known electrochemical advanced oxidation process that produces highly active hydroxyl radicals via the externally added catalytic amount of iron catalyst and in-situ generated hydrogen peroxide. The performance of the EF process depends on the choice of catalyst and the cathode. Biochar, an economically viable carbon-rich material derived from locally available biomass, presents a promising option for both catalyst support and cathode materials. The heterogeneous EF process using biochar-based catalyst has several advantages over the conventional EF process, including enhanced efficiency, declined iron leaching, surface-predominated radical generation, and pollutant degradation even in neutral pH conditions. Moreover, biochar demonstrates the capacity to generate a significant amount of hydrogen peroxide and regenerate ferrous ions rapidly. Additionally, biochar has a high adsorption capacity for many organic pollutants and ensures the contaminants' proximity and generated reactive species when applied as supports, catalysts, or electrodes in EF and related processes. The novelty of this work lies in its comprehensive review of the significant advancements and advantages of the applications of biochar in the EF process, emphasizing its potential to revolutionize wastewater treatment methodologies.

Synthesis of Fe-doped sludge biochar from Fenton sludge for efficient activation of peroxymonosulfate in tetracycline hydrochloride degradation

Traditional sludge treatment methods have problems in terms of environmental safety and cost-effectiveness. In this study, we followed the principle of "waste for waste" to synthesize magnetic sludge biochar (FSBC800) from biochemical sludge and Fenton sludge to activate persulfate (PMS) to remove persistent pollutants. Tetracycline hydrochloride (TC-HCl) was degraded up to 90.9% by FSBC800 using an active PMS system in just 30 minutes. This removal rate is higher than that of Fenton sludge biochar and biochemical sludge biochar by 2.7 and 1.8 times, respectively. The self-contained Fe in Fenton sludge formed evenly distributed Fe3O4 particles, while the biochemical sludge provided a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups, which increased the reactive active sites of FSBC800 and improved the catalytic performance. The dominant role of SO₄•⁻, •OH, and ¹O₂ in the degradation of TC-HCl was demonstrated by the identification of reactive oxygen species and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis. By examining the intermediates, a potential TC-HCl degradation pathway was postulated. The catalyst has good reusability and practical application, and the removal of TC-HCl was still 84.8% after four replicated experiments. This study establishes a cost-effective, efficient, and recyclable biochar-based catalyst for water remediation, and at the same realizes resourceful utilization of sludge.

Green synthesis of highly pyrrolic nitrogen-doped biochar for enhanced tetracycline degradation: New insights from endogenous mineral components and organic nitrogen synergy

The synthesis of efficient and environmentally friendly persulfate (PS) catalysts is currently a prominent research focus. This study employs single-step carbonization to investigate the interactions between endogenous mineral components (EMCs) and N-doping of nitrogen-rich biomass, aiming to design efficient biochar-based catalysts for enhanced tetracycline (TC) degradation. Biochars (PBC and SBC) derived from peanut hulls (PH) and soybean curd residue (SCR) with similar EMCs (ash ratio 16:19) but varying nitrogen content (1 % vs 1.53 %) were achieved, along with melamine-N-doped PBC (PBCN) for comparison under identical conditions. Physicochemical and quantum-chemistry analyses were conducted to investigate the synergistic effects between EMCs and organic-nitrogen in terms of morphological structures, active sites, and catalytic persulfate (PS)-mediated degradation of TC. The findings revealed that the optimal synthesis temperature for the efficient biochar-based catalyst was 800 °C. In contrast to exogenous N-doping with higher N-content (7.81 %), organic-N accelerated lattice disruption, leading to enhanced interactions with EMCs and resulting in the formation of hierarchical structures and pyrrole-N (organic-N 43.44 % > exogenous-N 17.67 %). The SBC/PS system exhibited superior degradation capability, with rapid removal of 95 % in 100 mg·L-1 TC. Density functional theory (DFT) confirmed that the non-radical pathways including 1O2 and electron transfer, facilitated by the presence of CO and pyrrole-N, were responsible for binding PS and forming biochar-PS*. This study furnishes both experimental data and theoretical insights, supporting the targeted control and efficient advancement of eco-friendly, high-value biochar-based catalysts.

Low temperature NH3 selective catalytic reduction of NOx over CeOx-biochar catalyst prepared by air oxidation

A highly efficient CeOx-BC0.6 (BC: biochar. 0.6: mass ratio of Ce/(BC + Ce)) catalyst was prepared by air oxidation for low temperature NH3 selective catalytic reduction of NOx. The catalytic performance, characterization and reaction mechanism of the CeOx-BC0.6 were investigated. The results showed that NOx conversion and N2 selectivity of CeOx-BC0.6 catalyst obtained by calcining in air were above 90 % at 150–300 °C and 100,000 h−1. The surface oxygen groups, acid sites and oxygen vacancies were generated by air oxidation treatment, which promoted the adsorption and activation of reactants. NH3 and NOx were adsorbed on the catalyst surface in the form of NH4+, NH3+, nitrite and nitrate adspecies. The redox cycles of ketonic carbonyl/phenol (CO/C–OH) pairs and Ce4+/Ce3+ pairs were responsible for the activation of NH3 and NOx. NH2NO and NH4NO2 were the main active intermediates. The reaction of NH3 selective catalytic reduction of NOx over CeOx-BC0.6 mainly followed Eley-Rideal mechanism. These results will promote the understanding of mechanism of NH3 selective catalytic reduction of NOx for biochar-based catalyst prepared by air oxidation.

Activation of peroxymonosulfate by biochar in-situ enriched with cobalt tungstate and cobalt: Insights into the role of rich oxygen vacancies and catalytic mechanism

The development of low-cost, stable, and recyclable multiphase catalysts in advanced oxidation process is essential for efficient degradation of antibiotics. In this study, a BC-Co-W-700 catalyst was used to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for chlortetracycline (CTC) degradation. The catalyst was prepared using reclaimed biomass material as a matrix. The biochar-based catalyst possessed abundant active sites and realized the in-situ growth of Co and CoWO4. The BC-Co-W-700/PMS achieved 100% degradation of CTC (20 mg/L) within 18 min. Quenching and electron paramagnetic resonance experiments were conducted to investigate the reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the BC-Co-W-700/PMS system. The identified ROS in this system included 1O2, O2−, SO4−, and OH. Abundant ROS endowed the system with strong degradation performance, applicability, and anti-interference ability. The catalytic mechanism of BC-Co-W-700/PMS system was comprehensively investigated using a combination of electrochemical experiments and theoretical calculations. The in-situ pyrrolic N formed by biochar had a strong adsorption capacity for CTC, allowing pollutants to quickly adsorb to the catalyst surface. This greatly shortened the distance required for the catalytic reaction. The introduction of W led to abundant oxygen vacancies on BC-Co-W-700, causing the catalyst to produce a large amount of 1O2. Furthermore, the oxygen vacancies provided a high concentration of electrons for the conversion of Co3+/Co2+. In addition, CTC degradation pathways were analyzed using density functional theory calculations, and the toxicity of the intermediates was evaluated using the quantitative structure–activity relationship combined with experiments. The green catalyst synthesis method proposed in this paper could provide a new approach for the efficient degradation of antibiotics in wastewater.

Sustainable biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using banana peel biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 magnetic catalyst

Addressing environmental challenges and energy resource scarcity, this study focuses on biodiesel production through the transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol. To facilitate the reaction, a novel heterogeneous catalyst, derived from waste banana peels and composed of biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5, was employed. The magnetic acid–base catalyst was prepared by carbonating banana peel residue with Fe(III) and potassium hydroxide activator under N2 gas at 700 °C for 2 h. Extensive analysis of the physical and chemical properties of the biochar-based catalyst, including electron microscope analysis, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and vibration magnetometer techniques, was conducted. The study also explored the influence of crucial parameters on biodiesel yield from waste cooking oil using the biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 catalyst. These parameters included the molar ratio of methanol to oil (ranging from 5 to 9 mol/mol), catalyst amount (2–6 wt%), temperature (40–80 °C), and reaction time (1–5 h). Results indicated that optimal conditions for achieving a biodiesel yield of 88.83% were a methanol to oil molar ratio of 7:1, a catalyst amount of 4 wt% for a reaction time of 3 h at 60 °C. The resulting biodiesel exhibited promising properties, including a density of 0.883 g/cm3, a kinematic viscosity of 4.37 mm2/s, and a flash point of 147 °C. The findings of this study highlight the substantial implications and practical benefits of employing rational engineering techniques in the utilization of biochar-Fe2O3/Fe2K6O5 as an exceptionally efficient, stable, and readily recoverable catalyst for the sustainable production of biodiesel from waste oil.

Efficient co-production of xylooligosaccharides, furfural and reducing sugars from yellow bamboo via the pretreatment with biochar-based catalyst

The research on the efficient use of biomass to produce chemical products has received extensive attention. In this work, a novel heterogeneous biocarbon-based heterogeneous catalyst AT-Sn-YB was prepared using yellow bamboo (YB) as a carrier, and its physical properties were proved to be good by various characterization and stability experiments. In the γ-valerolactone/water (3:1, v/v) medium containing 100 mM CuCl2, the use of AT-Sn-YB (3.6 wt%) under 170 °C for 20 min was applied to catalyze YB into furfural (80.3% yield), accompanied with 2.8 g/L xylooligosaccharides. The YB solid residue obtained from treatment was efficiently saccharified to reducing sugars (17.2 g/L). Accordingly, comprehensive understanding of efficiently co-producing xylooligosaccharides, furfural and reducing sugars from YB was demonstrated via the pretreatment with biochar-based catalyst. This study innovatively used a new type of solid acid to complete the efficient co-production of chemical products, and realized the value-added utilization of yellow bamboo.

A biochar-based catalyst prepared by potassium ferrate oxidation coupled high-temperature pyrolysis and its application for the activation of peroxymonosulfate towards the degradation of norfloxacin: Performance and mechanism insight

Developing an efficient catalyst for persulfate activation is critical to the high-efficiency degradation of organic pollutants in an aqueous solution using a persulfate-based advanced oxidation method. A biochar-based catalyst, 800Fe2BC2, was prepared using a novel technology of potassium ferrate oxidation coupled with high-temperature pyrolysis based on the biomass raw material of waste branches pruned from apple trees in an orchard. Batch tests were conducted to degrade norfloxacin using 800Fe2BC2 to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS). Norfloxacin was almost completely degraded within 10 min. The reactive oxygen species (ROS), for instance, •OH, SO4•−, O2•−and 1O2, were generated in the 800Fe2BC2/PMS system. The iron oxides, defective structures, and CO groups in 800Fe2BC2 served as catalytic sites for generating free radicals. However, the recombination of superoxide radicals, the interaction of CO groups on the catalyst surface with PMS, and the self-decomposition of PMS contributed to generating 1O2. The quenching test showed that the degree of the contribution of •OH, SO4•−, O2•−and 1O2 to NOR degradation was approximately 1O2 > O2•− > SO4•− > •OH, respectively. We proposed three potential NOR degradation pathways: piperazine ring opening (P), quinolone ring oxidation (Q), and benzene ring defluorination (F). Then part of these intermediates was completely mineralized into inorganics like CO2, H2O, NO3− and F−. The acute and chronic toxicity of the degradation products were estimated, and the evolution of toxicity in the present catalytic system could not be ignored and should be overcome by deeper mineralization. The prepared 800Fe2BC2 demonstrated a good application prospect with good stability, recyclability, low metal leaching, and versatility to various refractory pollutants. Therefore, this study offered a new way of producing biochar-based catalysts for activating PMS using biomass wastes.

Coalescence of As(II) with •OH: The pivot for co-processing of As(III) and butyl xanthate

Although water metalloid pollution is widely studied, the effect of the combined pollution of organic matter and metalloids in mining water and, especially, the possible interaction mechanisms between metalloids and flotation reagents, are both poorly understood. Existence of mixed pollution of metalloids and organic compounds tends to cause more serious harm to natural organisms. In this study, a synergistic removal of arsenite (As(III)) and butyl xanthate (Bx) in an advanced oxidation system was reported using biochar-based catalyst loaded with nano-zero-valent iron from an inexpensive iron source (iron slag) to activate peroxodisulfate. The removal efficiencies were improved by 30 % in the co-existence of As(III) and Bx compared to those of the single pollutant. The theoretical calculations, especially frontier molecular orbital theory, revealed the generation of [AsO2-OH]•− by the combination of As(II) with •OH. This [AsO2-OH]•− participated in the oxidative degradation of Bx with high activity and combined with the sulfur falling off Bx after the reaction to form a novel Fe-As-S complex as indicated by X-ray absorption +fine structure analysis. Overall, this study reports the generation of low-valent arsenic active substances of [AsO2-OH]•− and their effect on the removal of organic pollution containing S atoms in advanced oxidation systems under typical mining water conditions with the coexistence of As(III) and expands the understanding and application of traditional free radicals.

Co-pyrolysis of biomass and tires using commercial zeolite and biochar-based catalyst

Co-pyrolysis of biomass and tires using commercial zeolite and biochar-based catalyst

Catalytic pyrolysis of pine sawdust over activated carbon-supported Fe for phenol-rich bio-oil

In this study, catalytic pyrolysis was used to decompose pine sawdust into platform chemicals. A strategy to produce valuable alkylphenol compounds through catalytic pyrolysis was proposed by introducing surface active groups (metal iron species and oxygen-containing groups) to strengthen biochar-based catalyst. The results showed that the multiple active sites jointly promoted the further reaction of the pyrolytic intermediates absorbed on the Fe-activated carbon catalyst during the catalytic pyrolysis, and the furans and ketones, etc., were all converted into phenolic compounds under the action of fresh Fe-activated carbon catalyst (AC-Fe-1). After the fifth recycling of the catalyst (AC-Fe-5), the catalytic performance of deactivated catalyst could be well recovered by the simple regeneration treatment, showing a good selectivity for phenol production (AC-Fe-CO2, 87 %). Compared with non-catalytic pyrolysis, the relative content of phenolic substances generated by Fe-activated carbon in the catalytic pyrolysis increased from 15.42 % to more than 90 %, mainly methyl phenolics such as phenol, 2-methylphenol and 3-methylphenol. By contrast, the deactivation of Fe-activated carbon catalyst was not significant and the selectivity to phenol increased to 73.62 %─80.01 %, while the original activated carbon (without adding iron species) was seriously deactivated and the selectivity to phenol decreased by 38.26 %.

Advancements of Biochar-Based Catalyst for Improved Production of Biodiesel: A Comprehensive Review

Despite being a limited and scarce resource, the necessity and exploitation of fossil fuels are unstoppable in serving human demands. In order to supply energy demand without causing environmental damage, it is crucial to utilize a variety of renewable feedstock resources. Biochar, made up mostly of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, is the product of the thermochemical processes of pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction. Biochar, once activated, has the potential to act as a catalyst in a variety of energy generation processes, including transesterification and fermentation. Transesterification is the process that is used to produce biodiesel from a variety of oils, both edible and non-edible, as well as animal fats in the presence of either a homogeneous or a heterogeneous catalyst. When selecting a catalyst, the amount of free fatty acid (FFA) content in the oil is considered. Homogeneous catalysts are superior to heterogeneous catalysts because they are unaffected by the concentration of free fatty acids in the oil. Homogeneous catalysts are extremely hazardous, as they are poisonous, combustible, and corrosive. In addition, the production of soaps as a byproduct and a large volume of wastewater from the use of homogeneous catalysts necessitates additional pretreatment procedures and costs for adequate disposal. This article examines the biochar-based fuel-generation catalyst in detail. At first, a wide variety of thermochemical methods were provided for manufacturing biochar and its production. Biochar’s chemical nature was analyzed, and the case for using it as a catalyst in the production of biofuels was also scrutinized. An explanation of how the biochar catalyst can improve fuel synthesis is provided for readers. Biodiesel’s transesterification and esterification processes, biomass hydrolysis, and biohydrogen generation with the help of a biochar catalyst are all reviewed in detail.

Catalytic cracking of gas oil derived from heavy crude oil over biochar-based catalyst

Catalytic cracking of gas oil derived from heavy crude oil over biochar-based catalyst