Bio-based Plastics Research Articles

Catalytic Processes to Accelerate Decarbonization in a Net-Zero Carbon World.

Reducing carbon dioxide emissions is one of the critical challenges to mitigate global climate change, which is having detrimental impacts on society and the environment. Fossil fuel combustion in transportation, power generation, and industrial processes is the dominant contributor to carbon emissions. Over the past decades, sustainable solutions and strategies have been investigated and developed to enable decarbonization. Catalysis plays an essential role to address this global challenge by increasing energy efficiency, reducing carbon emissions, capturing carbon dioxide, and utilizing clean energy sources to displace fossil fuels. In this Review, the role of catalysis in reducing energy demand was discussed, enhancing process efficiency, displacing carbon-intensive feedstocks and products, and therefore, reducing carbon emissions. Recent advances in catalyst development were summarized, focusing on applications to enhance industrial processes efficiency and enable utilization of clean energy sources. Emerging approaches in catalysis were reviewed, including the manufacture of iron and steel, direct air capture of CO2 , production of ethylene, ammonia, and sustainable aviation fuels, plastic recycling, and the synthesis of biobased plastics. The Review was concluded with suggested research directions to achieve a carbon net-zero world.

A multi-criteria decision-making framework and analysis of vegetable oils to produce bio-based plastics

In the present paper, the suitability of the selected oilseeds, their corresponding vegetable oils, and few other raw materials to produce bio-based plastics was evaluated by constructing a novel criteria-based framework for Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) analysis with a focus on the criteria of chemical functionality, sustainability, production quantity, cost, and market availability. Qualitative, semi-quantitative, and quantitative data was utilized as a base for the criteria, for which a 1–5–9 scaling technique was developed to convert the hybrid starting data into the quantitative form, when required. Additionally, two varying sets of starting data, four scenarios with differing weights of importance, as well as two different MCDM techniques, namely Technique for Order Preference and Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) and Simple Additive Weighting (SAW), were used as a form of sensitivity analysis. The MCDM results were influenced by the dissimilar algorithm of TOPSIS and SAW techniques, resulting in different level of accuracy and a phenomenon of rank reversal, together with the developed MCDM framework in terms of the utilized data types, scaling technique, assumptions to treat data uncertainty as well as the selected criteria and scenarios. Regardless of the different starting data sets, scenarios, and MCDM techniques utilized for the MCDM analysis, tall, linseed, soybean, and palm oil were identified as the most suitable and palm kernel, coconut, and sunflower oil as the least suitable raw materials with their feature trade-offs to produce bio-based plastics. The MCDM results of the present paper can be treated as a guidepost targeted for diverse actors in the early stage of the bio-based plastics’ value chain with varying point-of-views. Further, in the future, the novel MCDM framework can be of relevant significance in analysing the features of various raw materials to produce bio-based plastics.

Synthesis of woody oil-based plasticizer via solvent-free Diels-Alder reaction and its biodegradability

Woody oil is extracted from the fruits or seeds of woody plants . Preparing woody oil based and biodegradable plasticizer via solvent-free Diels-Alder reaction can reduce plasticizer enrichment and pollution, as well as dependence on petrochemical resources. Herein, woody oil based plasticizer (TOP-Ⅰ and TOP-Ⅱ) were successfully synthesized from renewable woody oil via solvent-free Diels-Alder reaction. Chemical structure of TOP-Ⅰ and TOP-Ⅱ was characterized with 1 H NMR, Biodegradation of TOP-Ⅱ was investigated in active soil and digestive system of Tenebrio molitor . Degradation products were extracted from active soil and Tenebrio molitor feces, the results showed that TOP-Ⅱ experienced biodegradation and formed degradation components with low molecular weight substances. The insect degradation of bio-based plasticizers was first reported and provided an effective way to reduce plasticizer enrichment and pollution. In addition, TOP-Ⅰ and TOP-Ⅱ was used to replace petroleum-based and non-degradable dioctyl phthalate (DOP) in plasticized poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). The obtained plasticized PVC with TOP-Ⅰ and TOP-Ⅱ showed improved thermal stability, aging resistance, plasticization and solvent extraction resistance, the related mechanism behind these performances were also explored. • Biodegradable plasticizers could reduce plasticizer enrichment and pollution. • Woody oil based plasticizer was synthesized via solvent-free Diels-Alder reaction. • The bio-based plasticizer was degradable with active soil and Tenebrio molitor. • Plasticized PVC with woody oil based plasticizers had excellent properties. • The bio-based plasticizer might replace petro-based or non-degradable plasticizer.

Techno-economic and environmental assessment of polylactic acid production integrated with the sugarcane value chain

In the global pursuit of sustainable production and cleaner consumption strategies, bio-based plastics have been increasingly developed, produced, and used in the field of renewable materials. This study performs techno-economic and environmental assessments of polylactic acid (PLA) produced via lactic acid from sugarcane juice fermentation in integration with a typical Brazilian ethanol distillery. PLA presents net negative GHG emissions: −0.25 kg CO 2 eq./kg PLA from cradle to factory gate. It shows lower environmental scores than traditional fossil-based plastics in global warming and fossil resource scarcity categories. However, it reveals the highest impacts in terrestrial acidification and land occupation due to sugarcane cultivation. PLA from this study also presents a smaller global warming potential in comparison to other PLA cited in the literature since the energy demand from all industrial stages is supplied by sugarcane bagasse and straw combustion. Production cost is estimated at US$ 1.41/kg PLA in a venture that reaches an Internal Rate of Return of 29.4 %. PLA's minimum selling price of US$ 1.58/kg is lower than the stipulated US$ 2.66/kg market price. The attractive environmental results coupled with this competitive economic performance show that the proposed route can contribute to sustainable production within the plastics sector.

Consumer response to bio-based products – A systematic review

Bio-based products represent a promising alternative to fossil-based products and contribute to reduce negative environmental consequences caused by the latter. As consumer behavior is crucial for market penetration of bio-based products, this review analyses the current state of the art in consumer research on bio-based products and aims to identify research gaps and future research needs. This review is based on a systematic synthesis of 59 scientific journal articles and one book chapter on consumer studies related to bio-based products. Peer-reviewed studies in English language, with a research focus on consumer issues related to bio-based products of plant origin, that aim to replace fossil resources, have been included in the review. Most reviewed studies investigated bio-based plastics and composites, used a quantitative research approach, have been based on established consumer theories and used non-probability sampling techniques. While consumer preferences and attitudes, conviction as well as knowledge and perception related to bio-based products were focus of many reviewed studies, consumer awareness, liking and purchasing of bio-based products have been studied rarely or not at all. The results show that many consumers are not aware of the existence of bio-based products, related knowledge is low, and labels and brands are often unknown. Additionally, some consumers have wrong assumptions about the environmental impact of bio-based materials. Consumer preferences vary between product groups, but often factors like price or functionality are more important than bio-based materials. High purchase intentions and an increased willingness to pay are found e.g. for bio-based packaging products, disposable products and plant containers (in particular for female and environmentally-concerned consumers). The review identifies important research gaps and conclusions for future research needs such as e.g., to realize more studies in countries of the global south, analyze actual purchase behavior and the regional supply situation related to bio-based products.

Efficient biocatalytic synthesis of green plasticizer 2,5-furanediformate isooctyl ester using an immobilized lipase.

2,5-furanediformate Isooctyl is a potential new green biobased plasticizer. At present, most of the preparation methods are chemical methods, which not only have many by-products and are difficult to separate, but also cause environmental pollution. In this paper, the immobilized lipase Novozym435 was used as the catalyst to catalyze the transesterification of 2,5-furanediformate dimethyl ester and isooctyl alcohol to prepare 2,5-furanediformate isoocty in organic medium, and the reaction process was optimized. The optimal process conditions were determined by single factor experiment: in 10 mL toluene system, the additional amount of immobilized lipase Novozym435 was 0.02 g, the molar ratio of 2,5-furanediformate dimethyl ester (1 mmol) and isooctyl alcohol was 1:4, and 1 g 4Å molecular sieve was added to the reaction system, the reaction temperature was 50°C, the reaction time was 24 h, and the conversion rate of 2,5-furanediformate isoocty was 89.63%.

Early stage biofilm formation on bio-based microplastics in a freshwater reservoir

Bio-based plastics (BP) produced from renewable biomass resources, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polylactic acid (PLA) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), is currently increasing in terms of both products and applications. However, their biodegradability and environmental fate are not yet fully understood, especially in freshwaters. Here, we present the results of an in-situ study in a freshwater reservoir, where we submerged HDPE, PLA and PHBV microscale BP (mBP) in dialysis bags to enable exchange of small organic and inorganic molecules, including nutrients, with the surrounding water. After one and two months, the bacterial biofilm that formed on each mBP was characterised by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. After two-months, Oxalobacteraceae, Pedosphaeraceae, Flavobacteriaceae (Flavobacterium) and Chitinophagaceae (Ferruginibacter) had increased by up to four times. Both these and other common members (≥1 % relative total biomass) of the microbial community were similarly abundant on all mBP. Low-abundance (0.3–1 %) bacterial taxa, however, were significantly more diverse and differed on each mBP. Notably, some low-abundance families and genera increased on specific materials, e.g. Sphingomonadaceae on HDPE, Sphingobacteriaceae on PHBV, Gemmatimonas and Crenothrix on PLA. Overall, abundant bacteria were regarded as a pioneering community, while low-abundance bacteria were more diverse and preferred mBP types in the early stages of biofilm formation on mBP. It could be influenced by the environmental conditions, where nutrient levels and low temperatures might shape the low-abundance of attached bacterial communities than the plastic material itself.

Dark side of a bio-based and biodegradable plastic? Assessment of pathogenic microbes associated with poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) under ambient and future climates using next-generation sequencing.

Bio-based and biodegradable plastic mulching films have been proposed to replace the non-biodegradable plastic mulch films to solve plastic pollution problems in agricultural soils. However, the impact of bio-based and biodegradable plastics on plant and human health remains largely unexplored. Here, we aimed to assess the risk under field conditions of a bio-based and biodegradable poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate; PBSA), a widely used mulching film as carrier of potential pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) at ambient and future climate conditions. Overall, we affiliated 64 fungal and 11 bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) as pathogens by using Next-Generation Sequencing approach. Our results revealed that PBSA hosted at least 53 plant pathogens, of which 51 were classified as fungi, while the other two were bacteria. Most fungal plant pathogens were able to withstand the anticipated future climate changes. We detected 13 fungal and eight bacterial OTUs, which were classified as opportunistic human pathogens. Only one bacterial OTU (Enterococcus faecium) was assigned to a human pathogen. While future climate conditions only significantly impacted on the presence and frequency of detection of few pathogens, incubation time was found to significantly impacted on nine pathogens. This result demonstrates the temporal dynamics of pathogens associated with PBSA. The threats to plant and human health were discussed. We emphasize that the risks to human health are relatively low because we mainly found opportunistic pathogens associated with PBSA and the amount are comparable to the plant debris. However, the risks to plant health may be considered as moderate because many plant pathogens were discovered and/or enriched in PBSA. Furthermore, in soil environments, the pathogenic risk of plastic is highly depending on the surrounding soil pathobiome where plastic is being decomposed.

Policymakers Take Notice of Bioeconomy's Potential

Policymakers Take Notice of Bioeconomy's Potential

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)-Based Biodegradable Polymer from Agromyces indicus: Enhanced Production, Characterization, and Optimization.

Recently, there has been significant interest in bio-based degradable plastics owing to their potential as a green and sustainable alternative to synthetic plastics due to their biodegradable properties. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a biodegradable polymer that is produced by bacteria and archaea as carbon and energy reserves. Due to its rapid degradation in natural environments, it can be considered a biodegradable plastic alternative. In the present study, a dye-based procedure was used to screen PHB-producing bacteria isolated from mangrove soil samples. Among the seven isolates, Agromyces indicus (A. indicus), identified by means of 16S rRNA analysis, accumulated the highest amount of PHB. The extracted polymer was characterized by a UV–Vis spectrophotometer, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and for the presence of the phbB gene, which confirmed the structure of the polymer as PHB. The maximum PHB production by A. indicus was achieved after 96 h of incubation at a pH of 8.0 and 35 °C in the presence of 2% NaCl, with glucose and peptone as the carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. The strain was found to be capable of accumulating PHB when various cheap agricultural wastes, such as rice, barley, corn, and wheat bran, were used as the carbon sources. The response surface methodology (RSM) through the central composite design (CCD) for optimizing the PHB synthesis was found to be highly efficient at augmenting the polymer yields. As a result of the optimum conditions obtained from the RSM, this strain can increase the PHB content by approximately 1.4-fold when compared with an unoptimized medium, which would substantially lower the production cost. Therefore, the isolate A. indicus strain B2 may be regarded as one of the best candidates for the industrial production of PHB from agricultural wastes, and it can remove the environmental concerns associated with synthetic plastic.

Enhanced tolerance of Cupriavidus necator NCIMB 11599 to lignocellulosic derived inhibitors by inserting NAD salvage pathway genes.

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a bio-based, biodegradable and biocompatible plastic that has the potential to replace petroleum-based plastics. Lignocellulosic biomass is a promising feedstock for industrial fermentation to produce bioproducts such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). However, the pretreatment processes of lignocellulosic biomass lead to the generation of toxic byproducts, such as furfural, 5-HMF, vanillin, and acetate, which affect microbial growth and productivity. In this study, to reduce furfural toxicity during PHB production from lignocellulosic hydrolysates, we genetically engineered Cupriavidus necator NCIMB 11599, by inserting the nicotine amide salvage pathway genes pncB and nadE to increase the NAD(P)H pool. We found that the expression of pncB was the most effective in improving tolerance to inhibitors, cell growth, PHB production and sugar consumption rate. In addition, the engineered strain harboring pncB showed higher PHB production using lignocellulosic hydrolysates than the wild-type strain. Therefore, the application of NAD salvage pathway genes improves the tolerance of Cupriavidus necator to lignocellulosic-derived inhibitors and should be used to optimize PHB production.

Environmental Impacts of End-of-Life Options of Biobased and Fossil-Based Polyethylene Terephthalate and High-Density Polyethylene Packaging

Plastic waste production increasingly causes environmental pollution. However, end-of-life (EoL) research often lacks detail and timeliness and fails to integrate the end-of-life option into a product’s life cycle in a systemic perspective. This study addresses these knowledge gaps, by applying an improved anticipatory consequential life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. Reuse, mechanical and chemical recycling options were compared for (biobased and fossil-based) high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic shampoo bottles in the European context using three types of impact categories: climate change, fossil resource scarcity and mineral resources scarcity. The completeness and detail of EoL were increased by modelling the polymer reprocessing within the collection system including all transport distances, while timeliness was improved by implementing the data applicable for the time of implementation of EoL options in the future. The results show that the reuse option has the largest benefits on climate change impact, and on fossil and mineral resource scarcity for both HDPE and PET, for both biobased and fossil plastics. Furthermore, all EoL options cause a net reduction in all climate change, fossil and mineral resource scarcity thanks to the avoided impact of virgin plastic. Finally, the improved LCA approach, utilized in this study, includes plastic production, use and EoL in one assessment, and thus can provide valuable information for adjusting policy and regulations for plastic manufacturers in their production of new virgin plastic polymer, as it requires alignment with its use and EoL options.

One-pot and industrial manufacturing of cardanol-based polyoxyethylene ether carboxylates as efficient and improved migration resistance plasticizers for PVC

Developing a bio-based plasticizer for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) with excellent plasticization, thermal stability as well as migration resistance remains a great challenge since there is a trade-off between compatibility and molecular weight. Herein, novel linear polymer cardanol-based polyoxyethylene ether carboxylates (CPEC) featured by high plasticization, excellent thermal stability and migration resistance were designed via ethoxylation of cardanol and sequent esterification with aliphatic acid (acetic acid, butyric acid, and oleic acid). The performances of poly(vinyl chloride) plasticized by cardanol-based polyoxyethylene ether carboxylates were highly structure-dependent, where the performances of poly(vinyl chloride) plasticized by ester bearing short alkyl group (methyl or propyl) excelled those of PVC plasticized by ester with heptadecyl group. Importantly, extensive experiments evidenced that the ductility, thermal stability and migration resistance of PVC blended with CPEC were significantly better than those of PVC plasticized by dioctyl phthalate (DOP). The excellent performances of PVC plasticized by CPEC could be ascribed to its repetitive oxethyl units, which played crucial roles in increasing its molecular weights, improving the compatibility with PVC, as well as imparting the flexibility of PVC. In particular, the PVC sample plasticized by cardanol-based polyoxyethylene ether acetate (CPEA) with the shortest alkyl ester demonstrated 1.6-fold increase of the elongation at break along with 20.8-fold increase of migration resistance in leaching tests compared with those of PVC specimen plasticized by DOP. This work opens up a simple and feasible strategy for fabrication of bio-based plasticizer featured by high plasticization and excellent migration resistance.

Effects of information provision on public attitudes toward bioplastics in Japan

Bioplastics (i.e., bio-based and biodegradable plastics) are attracting attention as a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil-based plastics. However, their use in Japan, the fifth-highest per capita disposal of single-use plastics, has not become as widespread as planned by the Japanese government, and an increase in consumer awareness is necessary to promote the use of bioplastics and increase the demand for sustainable products. In addition, to promote social implementation, it is also necessary to understand the difference between bio-based and biodegradable plastics and use them correctly. Through an online questionnaire survey, this study found that the Japanese public's knowledge of bioplastics was low: there was a major difference between subjective and objective knowledge, but their perception of bioplastics was more positive than that of conventional plastics. However, they had little experience in using bioplastics. Therefore, we investigated whether providing information would promote the intent to use bioplastics. As a result, information provision is likely to be effective in increasing the willingness to use bioplastics in addition to promoting positive perceptions. The participants indicated a significantly greater willingness to pay a higher price for single-use plastics (such as a 500 ml bottle of water), but not for durable plastics (such as a three-color ballpoint pen).

Coca-Cola bottler backs sugar research

A large bottler of Coca-Cola products is funding work at the University of California, Berkeley, lab of chemist Peidong Yang that is aimed at converting carbon dioxide into sugar via artificial photosynthesis. Coca-Cola Europacific Partners says the technology would use less land and energy than growing crops to produce sugar. The company hopes the approach, also used in a NASA project to make sugar in space, could be used to create biobased plastic packaging.

Revealing the feasibility and environmental benefits of replacing disposable plastic tableware in aviation catering: An AHP-LCA integrated study

Reducing disposable plastic products has been in the spotlight lately, in order to address plastic pollution. With the rapid development of air transportation, plastic waste during flight is increasing, and most of it comes from catering. To evaluate the feasibility of replacing disposable plastic tableware, we carried out an integrated analytic hierarchy process (AHP) - life cycle assessment (LCA) study. The results show no significant feasibility in replacing salad bowls, while cutleries made of stainless steel, bamboo or bio-based plastic are preferred to petroleum-based plastic ones. In particular, bio-based plastic cutlery poses the least negative environmental impacts among all the disposable alternatives. Stainless steel cutlery will have the least carbon emissions when used more than 29 times. Replacing cutleries can reduce carbon emission by 12.5 g to 25.6 g of CO2 per cutlery set, leading to a maximum reduction of 10,219.51 t/a in China's domestic flights in 2019.

Evaluation of Natural and Modified Castor Oil Incorporation on the Melt Processing and Physico-Chemical Properties of Polylactic Acid

Bio-based plasticizers derived from renewable resources represent a sustainable replacement for petrochemical-based plasticizers. Vegetable oils are widely available, non-toxic and biodegradable, resistant to evaporation, mostly colorless and stable to light and heat, and are a suitable alternative for phthalate plasticizers. Plasticized poly(lactic acid) (PLA) materials containing 5 wt%, 10 wt%, 15 wt% and 20 wt% natural castor oil (R) were prepared by melt blending to improve the ductility of PLA. Three castor oil adducts with maleic anhydride (MA), methyl nadic anhydride (methyl-5-norbornene-2,3-dicarboxylic anhydride) (NA) and hexahydro-4-methylphthalic anhydride (HA), previously synthesized, were incorporated in a concentration of 15 wt% each in PLA and compared with PLA plasticized with natural R. The physico-chemical properties of PLA/R blends were investigated by means of processability, chemical structure, surface wettability, mechanical, rheological and thermal characteristics. The addition of natural and modified R significantly improved the melt processing by decreasing the melt viscosity by ~95%, increased the surface hydrophobicity, enhanced the flexibility by ~14 times in the case of PLA/20R blend and ~11 times in the case of PLA/15R-MA blend as compared with neat PLA. The TG/DTG results showed that the natural R used up to 20 wt% could significantly improve the thermal stability of PLA, similar to the maleic anhydride-modified R. Based on the obtained results, up to 20 wt% natural R and 15 wt% MA-, HA- or NA-modified R might be used as environmentally friendly plasticizers that can improve the overall properties of PLA, depending on the intended food packaging applications.

식량자산 부산물인 옥수수 피 첨가가 바이오 플라스틱 시트의 물성에 미치는 영향

This study investigated the characteristics for the optimal concentration of addition of the mixing solution through the corn husk pulverization and surface modification of biomass byproducts adding mixed solution between ESO and silane. And surveyed the specific surface area, water absorption, particle size and physical properties of bio- degradable plastic sheet. The specific surface area was 1.105m2/g, particle size was the highest at 19 μm. The impact strength, tensile strength, elongation and hardness of plastic sheet showed the highest at the 1% concentration among the mixing solutions. The flexural strength and modulus was high according to the increasing the mixing solution. The results above showed that it was the best the adding 1% of mixed solution after silane treatment of corn husks for its manufacture as a bio-based plastic sheet.

Key issues for bio-based, biodegradable and compostable plastics governance

Among global efforts facing plastic pollution, their gradual replacement with alternative materials has gained strength during the last decade. We identified five stakeholders and their respective key participation in the chain of bio-based, biodegradable and compostable plastics (BBCP), which have contributed to several flaws on governance of these materials. The widespread unfamiliarity of the consumers about biodegradability concepts has been leading to misguided purchase decisions and disposal practices, along with possible littering behavior. Simultaneously, the adoption of greenwashing practices by stores and manufacturers contribute to disseminating misguided decisions on plastic consumption. Such issues are further aggravated by the lack of certification standards concerning the impact of littering, including the assessment of persistency and toxicity, also covering those made with biodegradable plastics.”. Moreover, even though such alternative polymers were originally conceived as a strategy to minimize plastics pollution, the almost inexistence of specific regulatory frameworks in different political scales may convert them in a relevant part of the problem. Therefore, the governance systems and management strategies need to incorporate BBCP as potentially hazardous waste as they do for conventional plastics.

Synthesis of Biodegradable Plastic from Citrus reticulata peels

In the modern society plastics play a vital role as packaging materials in almost all the sectors of day-to-day life. These plastics do not degrade easily as they are invulnerable to the microbial decomposition and thus persist for a long time in the environment. All these have caused tremendous harm to the environment. To solve this problem alternative methods for producing bio-based plastics are highly encouraged. Bio-based plastics are derived from natural resources. These bioplastics can be composed of a variety of materials such as starch, cellulose etc. The present study has been conducted to serve two purposes at a time. The first one is to make use of the fruit’s wastes and second, production of the bioplastic from those wastes. The production process was made using simple laboratory techniques. Characterization methods such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and biodegradability further confirmed the properties of the bio-based plastic.