Bilingual Policy Research Articles

Introduction:

Introduction: Wendy Cheng (bio) and Chih-Ming Wang (bio) This forum originated as a roundtable at the 2019 ASA conference in Honolulu, Hawai'i. At a moment in which US–Taiwan relations had seemed to reach a new historic height under Donald Trump's right-wing, nationalist presidency,1 it felt important to name and articulate Taiwan's long and troubled relationship with the United States. Further, the conference's location in Hawai'i, touted since the Cold War by the US state as a crossroads and amalgam of "East and West" (a narrative that erases Hawai'i as an Indigenous place and Kanaka 'Ōiwi as a people), served as an apt setting for our discussion of Taiwan as an instructive yet neglected lens through which to view US Empire, militarism, multiple colonialisms, and knowledge formation. The islands of Hawai'i, moreover, articulate an archipelagic history across the Pacific against dominant narratives of continental expansion and civilization as colonization. Our forum follows on Funie Hsu, Brian Hioe, and Wen Liu's "Collective Statement on Taiwan Independence: Building Global Solidarity and Rejecting US Military Empire," published in American Quarterly in September 2017, which cautioned supporters of Taiwan independence to be wary of an alliance with then president Donald Trump. Instead of pinning the hope of independence on the US military empire, the statement encouraged supporters to build solidarity instead with "groups marginalized by American Empire and with other global movements for decolonization."2 As some Asian Americans—including many Taiwanese Americans afraid of a belligerent China—assert right-wing politics increasingly loudly and the risk of war in the Taiwan Strait increases,3 it is both pressing and timely to think about how Taiwan matters, if at all, in the US political imagination, and how Taiwan might navigate itself out of the treacherous waters of US–PRC contention that turns islands into frontiers of empire and reduces them to emblems of betrayal and threat. We seek to place Taiwan in the US political imaginary past and present and to imagine transformative politics out of contradiction and ambiguity, as we engage in the material and ideological politics of the US–PRC–Taiwan triangle [End Page 335] Click for larger view View full resolution Figure 1. "Conference notes" was created by Angel Trazo at the site of 2019 ASA Conference in Honolulu. We are grateful for Trazo's permission to reproduce the image here. and its implications for coalition politics in the larger Asian and Pacific island worlds. Individually and collectively, we consider how Taiwan's conditions of being have been overdetermined by the US military empire, and how understanding Taiwan as a frontier of empire can inform discussions in American studies about resistance and revolution, settler colonialism, Indigenous sovereignty, and coalition politics. By locating Taiwan in the US political imagination, we also reflect on American studies' origin in Cold War politics as it pertains to US imperialism in shaping political ideology and changing the world order—or, as Judy Tzu-Chun Wu puts it in her commentary on this forum, "how American studies and orientalism are two sides of the transpacific flow of knowledge"—a condition that badly needs dismantling now. The forum opens with two essays that locate both Hawai'i and Taiwan in transpacific Cold War intellectual and political history. Wendy Cheng discusses the 1960s–1970s case of Chen Yu-hsi, a Taiwanese student at the University of Hawai'i's East-West Center, whose arrest and imprisonment in Taiwan inspired [End Page 336] a broad liberal, left, and internationalist coalition of supporters; Yukari Yoshihara delves into the imperial origin of American studies in postwar Japan via the career of George Kerr (also a University of Hawai'i alum), whose sojourn in Okinawa and Taiwan was seminal to his vision of American studies. We then move into the present with essays by Funie Hsu and Anita Wen-Shin Chang: Hsu critiques bilingual policy in Taiwan as a sign of in/dependence where a form of benevolent imperialism harnessed Taiwan's imagination of the United States, and Chang considers the feminist and popular democratic praxis and potential of the Taiwanese state today, as expressed by Digital Minister Audrey Tang, to demand...

역사적 접근을 통한 캐나다 이중언어정책

역사적 접근을 통한 캐나다 이중언어정책

“I Call Them My Little Chinese Kids”: Parents’ Identities and Language Ideologies in a Mandarin-English Dual Language Immersion School

Research on bilingual education presents clear advantages for children’s linguistic, cognitive, and social development. However, recent criticism of dual language education programs has led to claims of dual language education as a marker of elite bilingualism or that parents play their roles as socially accepted “good parents” by sending their child to a bilingual school. This paper presents the linguistic ideologies of parents of students enrolled in two Chinese-English dual language schools in the MidAtlantic U.S. Qualitative data were obtained from in-depth interviews with 21 parents (mothers = 15, fathers = 6), the majority of whom have no Chinese ethnic connection. In drawing from theories of Family Language Policy, parents addressed the connections between Mandarin and economic, political, sociolinguistic, or sociocultural factors. Discussions with parents reveal both their knowledge and misconceptions regarding language learning theories. Findings also indicated that parental language ideologies often intertwine Chinese language with culture and nationality. Further, this research explores the ways parents uniquely shaped their identities in how they both accept and reject aspects of Chinese culture and language. My study reveals a more nuanced portrait of the parents who choose Mandarin immersion for their children, and explores the critical role that caretakers can play in informing bilingual policies and practices.

“We contribute to the development of South Korea”: Bilingual womanhood and politics of bilingual policy in South Korea

AbstractGlobal flows of migration to South Korea bring a new challenge of how to negotiate the identities of migrants. Unlike other reported cases that reframe the value of migrants’ first language as part of contingent practices of diversity management, the South Korean government has responded to this challenge by explicitly reframing so-calleddamunhwamothers (foreign women married to Korean men) as bilingual workers, imagining them as self-governed, autonomous workers whose linguistic capital can be mobilized for the betterment of South Korean society. The government’s adoption of linguistic entrepreneurship and ethnocentric nationalism becomes particularly salient in this process. This paper studies how fourdamunhwamothers respond to this new bilingual worker identity as promoted in the bilingual policy texts. We examine the ways in which they negotiate their bilingual worker identities by echoing the government’s new linguistic nationalism and linguistic entrepreneurship on the one hand, and by problematizing the insecure job markets, stratified linguistic needs, lack of systematic training for bilingual instructors, and native Korean’s misunderstanding of their new roles on the other. Finally, we discuss the implications of Korea’s bilingual policy, elaborating on the significance of linguistic entrepreneurship in language policy planning and practice and calling for more reflective accounts of ecological and translingual policy implementation in Korea.

LANGUAGE POLICY IN BELARUS AND KAZAKHSTAN (COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS FOR UKRAINE)

The article analyzes the background and outcomes of the introduction of official bilingualism in Belarus and Kazakhstan. This topic is quite relevant to Ukraine given that specific political forces repeatedly attempted to give Russian language state or official status at least at the regional level. The choice of the subject is determined by the fact that Belarus and Kazakhstan as well as Ukraine were the most Russified republics of the former Soviet Union had similar language problems after they declared independence.
 Based on the analysis of official documents, sociological and statistical data, it was revealed that the introduction of bilingualism in Belarus and Kazakhstan had different scope, goals and outcomes. In Belarus, state bilingualism, as a continuation of Soviet Russification, led to the marginalization of the Belarusian language and the practical deprivation of the titular nation of an important component of its identity. In Kazakhstan, the policy of official bilingualism provided for the expansion of the use of the Kazakh language in all areas. However, since the free use of Russian is a statutory right, the promotion of the Kazakh language was limited mainly to ethnic Kazakhs and other turk ethnic groups, almost without affecting Russians and other minorities, among whom the level of knowledge and use of Kazakh is extremely low. Nowadays, official bilingualism is becoming an obvious obstacle to building a Kazakh political nation. These examples show that the policy of official bilingualism in countries burdened by the legacy of Russification poses risks to national security. Thus, we can conclude that the changes to the Ukrainian legislation aimed at ensuring the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language, overcoming the consequences of the Russification of the Ukrainian cultural and information space, were adopted on time.

Bilingual Policy of Singapore and Policy Implications for Vietnam in the Context of National Integration

Language and language policy is one of the basic issues and an important foundation for social development. Language policy is related to a series of issues such as ethnicity, religion, culture, media, education, national security, etc. and becomes a strategic content for each country, especially for nation building and development by the government. The development of a language policy that is appropriate to the language situation will contribute to promoting the overall economic and social development, which is essential for maintaining stability and integration. The research topic of the article is the bilingual situation and policy of Singapore, thereby giving policy implications for Vietnam in the context of international integration.

Prospects and Challenges of Dynamic Bilingual Education in the Light of Pakistan’s Language Policy

This research investigates challenges and prospects of the dynamic, bilingual education in the light of Pakistan’s language policy. It guides language policymakers to adopt the dynamic, bilingual policy in Pakistan’s education system. However, the researcher revealed that most of the participants willingly favored and practiced the dynamic model of bilingual instruction, but there is no formal policy guide for them. The employment of this education model is valid and feasible in both theory and practice. Besides, readers and policymakers through this research paper would come to know that the dynamic, bilingual education improves students’ socio-cognitive, linguistic performance and functional biliteracy through translanguaging and multimodalities. The issue of monoglossic separation of languages in Pakistan is yet to be solved. Furthermore, the researcher used qualitative, empirical methodology to do analysis and employed open-ended questionnaires to collect data. The researcher used purposive sampling to collect data from sixteen respondents. Additionally, findings show that the subtractive language policy, linguistic politics, the power elite’s monolingualism, parents’ obsession with English, and students’ negative attitudes are challenges to the dynamic, bilingual education. In contrast, Pakistan’s multi-lingual reality along with translingual practices, the use of multimodalities, students’ multi-lingual repertoire, functional biliteracy, and transcultural interaction are some of the prospects of the dynamic, bilingual education policy in Pakistan. Thus, there are both challenges and prospects of the dynamic, bilingual education policy in Pakistan.

Optimising Post-Colonial Bilingual Education in Cameroon’s Primary and Secondary Schools: A Critic on School Practice

The post-colonial period was a turning point in Cameroon’s educational system. Since Independence and Reunification in 1960-61, the various governments of the Federal Republic of Cameroon, the United Republic of Cameroon and the Republic of Cameroon have been committed to the development of Education. Significant resources have been invested in this course geared towards improved education quality in both sub-sectors of Primary and Secondary Education. The Ministries of Primary and Secondary Education continue to be amongst the top ministries to receive the highest allocation from the state budget with 19.7% in 2010 and 16.3% in 2011 (Cameroon, 2015). However, there still exist challenges to quality education in Cameroon that the government has continued to address through, formation of commission, committees, and taskforces that have influenced curriculum policy formulation and implementation. In this respect, the formulation of education policy of bilingualism to use in the teaching and learning in Cameroon schools has been one of the main concerns of education in Cameroon. There is therefore need to asses and monitor progress of how this has guided teaching and learning in schools. How this policy has evolved overtime and especially how it is serving the purpose for which it was formulated. Using the Historical approach this study provides an opportunity to critically examine the efforts made in Cameroon in implementing the policy of bilingualism formulated for teaching in primary and secondary schools after independence and reunification. It sheds light in the meaning of bilingualism in the context of school application and broadens discussions on challenges faced by stakeholders in the implementation process. Furthermore, as the country, looks towards the achievement of the millennium development goals and education for sustainable development, the study provides recommendations to optimize bilingualism in Schools in Cameroon.

Probability of Heritage Language Use at a Supportive Early Childhood Setting in Australia

© Copyright © 2020 Escudero, Jones Diaz, Hajek, Wigglesworth and Smit. Despite well-established research that documents the intellectual, linguistic, sociocultural and familiar benefits of early childhood bilingualism, Australia's provision of heritage language (HL) support in early childhood (EC) settings is fairly minimal, resulting in little to no access to the HL outside of the home. We report on language data from a long day care preschool that has an open bilingual policy, where two languages (HL and English) are used in naturalistic interactions between children and educators. While the quantity of language input and output is known to impact on language proficiency, there are no prior studies which focus on establishing the quantitative nature of naturalistic language production in a bilingual preschool. Our goal was to document the relative language input and output of HL and English and to examine whether there are differences across age groups in the EC setting, and during different activity types. We followed a quantitative approach in data analysis, with child and educator observations over a period of 8 weeks and an analysis of targeted videos amounting to close to an hour of recordings per child. We used Bayesian modeling to test the probability of HL use in the different age groups and per activity type. Overall, HL input was higher for toddlers than preschoolers and toddlers received more HL input than English, while preschoolers received comparable input in both languages. The higher probability of HL input in toddlers was particularly evident during story time and playing activities. Our results indicate a high level of HL use in this EC setting, suggesting success in HL maintenance and promotion of early bilingualism. Further research should explore the children's relative language output in relation to their input, individual differences, as well as extending the current methodology to other similar settings in Australia.

Singapore bilingual education

Abstract Bilingualism has always been emphasized in Singapore’s education system. Since 1959, Singapore government leaders have repeatedly stressed that bilingualism is the cornerstone of Singapore’s language policy. Scholars researching language policy and planning in Singapore have also assumed that Singapore has always maintained a consistent stand on bilingualism. This paper cites the case of Chinese language (Mandarin) education as evidence to show how “bilingual” education has undergone significant changes in Singapore by tracing the historical changes and examining how bilingual education has evolved since its implementation. The findings show that the once-compulsory bilingual requirements gave way to differentiated ones in the history of Singapore’s bilingual policy. This finding will help researchers have a better understanding of Singapore’s “bilingual education” today and its position compared to other bilingual education systems in the world.

Translation, rewriting and formation of Singapore’s bilingual education policy

Abstract Individuals inevitably have their own perception of Singapore’s bilingual education policy, especially those who experienced its formation and history from the pre-independence days of the 1950s to the 1980s. The book, My Lifelong Challenge: Singapore’s Bilingual Journey by Lee Kuan Yew, the founding Prime Minister of Singapore, provides much information and insights into this part of history. Through the comparison of the English and Chinese editions, this paper discusses the poetics, patronage and ideological differences related to the reasons for the translation and rewriting by Lee Kuan Yew of the Chinese edition. It suggests that Lee Kuan Yew had different intentions for the English and Chinese editions in relation to the respective readerships; as regards the English readership, the author intends the readers to gain knowledge of the historical background and to emphasize to them the importance of Mother Tongue; as regards the Chinese readership, he seeks to address any misunderstandings and misgivings towards the government that this group of readers may have and to gain their support for the bilingual policy.

An appraisal of bilingual language policy implementation in South African higher education

The demand for promoting bilingual and multilingual language policies in African universities can be regarded as a decolonial force for driving pedagogical changes in teaching and learning. In South Africa, there have been polemic debates particularly on the need to include African languages as alternatives to English. This article intervenes in the increasing tensions about language policy implementation in tertiary institutions. The study utilises a qualitative methodology that blends secondary and primary data collected from semi-structured interviews and questionnaires from two campuses (Howard and Pietermaritzburg) of the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN). Findings reveal that the UKZN academic staff and students have mixed feelings about the implementation of the bilingual language policy. The authors argue for the need to balance the use of African and non-African languages for teaching and learning. The study ends with a highlight of the challenges related to this Africanising project through language policies by emphasising key tenets for strengthening language policy implementation in South Africa.

Language policy in higher education in the United Arab Emirates: proficiency, choices and the future of Arabic

This article explores the linguistic tension resulting from the English-medium instruction policy at a state university in the UAE. The article is informed by a critical theoretical approach that views language policy from the vantage point of both Arabic and English. It argues that, contrary to the stated national and institutional goals, the current language policy and its implementation are depleting the linguistic capital of the nation. Data drawn from multiple sources show that English-medium instruction is incompatible with the students’ low levels of proficiency in English; that the implementation of the institution’s bilingual policy is geared towards the development of English only; and that a monolingual conceptualisation underpins institutional practices, thus contributing to Arabic language loss in the education domain. The article proposes that higher education in the country be linguistically diversified in order to achieve the goals of higher education and to protect the linguistic rights of local citizens.

Eye on the Future: Diverse Family Language Policy in Three Singaporean Malay Homes with Preschool Children

Singapore’s bilingual education policy mandates children study English and a mother-tongue in school. To understand the language shift from Malay to English in Malay homes from the perspective of family language policy, this paper reports on the diverse language ideologies and practices of three Singaporean Malay mothers of preschool children. The in-depth interviews were conducted in 2013- 2014 and transcribed verbatim by a bilingual English-Malay transcriptionist. Although the mothers were of similar ethnic, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds, their home language practices were distinctly different. Their language practices reflected the beliefs, values, and feelings they ascribed to Malay, English, and Mandarin, languages their preschool-age children were exposed to as well as their ideas about language development and bilingualism in Singapore. While subscribing to some state bilingual education policy assumptions, mothers actively formed different family language policies to resist the state bilingual policy, shield their children from academic pressure, and carve out a unique Malay identity. Major forces such as Malay as a minority, language and social mobility, and English ownership, in addition to state bilingual policy and education system, were discussed in connection to mothers’ family language policy.

Local problems and a global solution: examining the recontextualization of CEFR in Thai and Malaysian language policies

Since its publication in 2001, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) has become a highly influential means of describing language proficiency. Its spread has, however, been marked by contradictions, since the framework has been appropriated in the service of a variety of different policy agendas. In this paper, I argue that such contradictions are indicative of broader ideological contrasts, which may impact how the framework is implemented at the local scale. By drawing on critical discourse analysis and conceptual history, I analyse a set of recent language policy texts from Thailand and Malaysia, two Asian contexts where CEFR has recently been introduced, to examine how such global ideological struggles connect with local agendas. I find that CEFR has in these multilingual contexts been embedded into a bilingual policy agenda which foregrounds the national language (Thai or Bahasa Malaysia) and English while backgrounding other languages. This means that CEFR was detached from the agenda of the Council of Europe, with the recontextualization of CEFR shown to have been a selective process in which the only part to be consistently transferred were the CEFR levels, which were in this decontextualised form presented as a transnational standard. I argue that these patterns are indicative of a struggle between the global agenda of ELT and its roots in the ideology of neoliberalism, that underlies much of the worldwide spread of CEFR, and a local nationalist agenda attempting to appropriate the framework for its own purposes.

Bilingualism in the scientific and educational discourse of China: psychophysiological, organizational and pedagogical aspects

The article analyzes certain aspects of the representation of modern scientific, educational and organizational discourse, characterizing the state of research in the field of theory and practice of bilingualism. It is emphasized that the problem of cultivating bilingualism has acquired particular relevance in modern China, which pursues a policy of active use of national languages in regions and administrative units inhabited by representatives of other, non-Han, ethnic groups. Based on the content analysis, the activity of foreign researchers of the problems of bilingualism and trilingualism in China has been established. Three thematic clusters are identified and characterized, within which modern research is carried out and the policy of bilingualism in China is implemented.

Exploring characteristics of quality in language teaching & learning: The Mother Tongue Adapted Coding Scheme (MACS)

Teacher–child interactions are an integral factor influencing the quality of early childhood education, and multilingualism is increasingly prevalent in many contexts. In the multilingual society of Singapore this is particularly relevant because early childhood classrooms follow a bilingual policy and include the teaching and learning of Mother Tongue languages. To evaluate what constitutes quality for preschool language teaching in this multilingual context, the Mother Tongue Adapted Coding Scheme (MACS) was developed to examine teacher–child interactions during blocks of Mother Tongue language lessons. The comprehensive observational rating scheme for language learning included four domains: language input, language output, varied teaching strategies, and English use for teaching Mother Tongue language. This rating scheme was applied to fifty-one classrooms where teachers were videotaped while they conducted Chinese, Malay, or Tamil language lessons. Within the observed classrooms, four hundred and ninety-one children were assessed on their Mother Tongue language learning over three years for receptive vocabulary, reading, and morphological awareness. Overall interrater reliability on the MACS was high across language classrooms (K > 0.72). Correlation and exploratory factor analyses indicated a main factor for the language input and output domains, and separate factors for English language use. Teachers’ factor scores were found unrelated to their scores on the CLASS. Higher factor scores on input/output quality were correlated with having more high progress learners (compared to peers) for receptive vocabulary, but less high progress learners for reading. Implications for future applications and adaptations of the MACS are discussed in light of the use of rating tools to examine and better understand the constituents of ECE quality within multilingual contexts.

다문화가족정책기본계획(2013~2017) 언어정책사업과제의 우선순위분석을 통한 이중 언어정책 활성화 탐색

한국사회는 다문화 사회로 진입한 이후 다양한 언어를 배경으로 하는 해외 이주민들과의 조화공존을 위한 이중 언어교육정책에 대한 관심이 증가하고 있다. 한국은 지금까지 해외 이주민들을 위한 언어 교육정책에서도 강제 동화적인 면이 반영되면서 한국어 수준 제고와 성과에만 집중되었다. 이러한 문제 해결을 위해 정부는 다문화가족정책기본계획을 정규적으로 발표해오고 있다. 따라서 본 연구는 다문화가족정책기본계획(2013-2017)의 언어정책사업에 대해 한국어 전문가들로부터 AHP분석을 위한 계층별 목표와 하부요인을 이루는 요인들을 구성하기 위해 면대면 설문조사를 실시하였고 이를 통해 상대적 중요도의 전체우선순위 분석결과를 도출하였다. 미래지향적 관점에서 다문화 가정과 한국사회가 소통하고 화합을 할 수 있는 이중 언어교육정책의 활성화를 위한 방안을 탐색하였다. 본 연구의 결론은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 한국사회는 국가와 민족 간의 경계를 초월하여 해외 이민자들의 모국 언어와 문화가 공존하기 위한 샐러드볼 이론(Salad Bowl theory)을 토대로 하는 언어적 상이성을 인정해야 한다. 둘째, 다문화 구성원의 개인적 특성을 존중하는 모자이크 이론(Mosaic theory)을 기초로 학교 언어 교육에서 소수 해외 이주민들의 언어를 적극 반영하여 정규화 해야 한다. 셋째, 정부는 국가주도의 다문화주의 표방과 해외 이주민들의 다양성이 존중되는 사회통합구축을 위해 매체를 적극 활용하고 관련 프로그램을 제공한다. 넷째, 한국사회는 해외 이주민들의 모국어가 활성화 될 수 있는 직업프로그램의 단계적 확대와 각 지역의 특수 조건에 맞는 프로그램 및 언어교육을 개발해야 한다.

Preparing for the Challenges of a Bilingual Teacher in Teaching English as a Foreign/Second Language

Taiwan's bilingual education policy started in 2018, and its implementation is expected to commence in 2022. This paper reviews Taiwan's bilingual policy and some measures to address the need for such reform. Discussions on the Ministry of Education's plans in using the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach, the Teach English in English (TEIE), and the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are tackled in the presentation. Recommendations on how to narrow gaps, provide support teachers, and improve the implementation of the bilingual policy are covered in this paper. Moreover, a model called, Bilingual and CLIL teacher created by the author explains the challenges and preparations of a non-native English speaker who teaches English as a foreign language or as a second language. It is a comprehensive model that can be used by other researchers in addressing the challenges and preparations needed before the implementation of any educational reforms.

Technology-Based Tools for English Literacy Intervention: Examining Intervention Grain Size and Individual Differences.

Technology plays an increasingly important role in educational practice, including interventions for struggling learners (Torgesen et al., 2010; de Souza et al., 2018). This study focuses on the efficacy of tablet-based applications (see Word Reading, Grapholearn, and an experimental word-level program) for the purpose of supplementing early English literacy intervention with primary grades 1 and 2 children. The children were identified for learning support programs within Singaporean schools, which follow a bilingual policy, meaning children were learning reading in English plus an additional language. One hundred forty-seven children across seven schools participated (Mean age = 6.66). Within learning support classrooms, triplets of students matched on basic reading skills were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1) phoneme-level, (2) rime-level, or (3) word-level focused interventions. All groups performed reading skills activities on iPads, across two phases over a 14-week period. Assessments for word reading accuracy and fluency, pseudoword decoding accuracy and fluency, and spelling were administered at four time points, pre- and post-intervention. Additional baseline measures were taken to assess individual differences in phonological awareness, orthographic awareness, general cognitive ability, statistical learning, and bilingual vocabulary knowledge. Mixed model analysis was conducted on the pre- to post-test measures across the two phases of the intervention (focused on accuracy then fluency). All groups made gains across the different literacy measures, while the phoneme-level intervention showed an advantage over the rime-level intervention, but not the word-level intervention, for decoding. There were also moderating effects of individual differences on outcomes. The general pattern of results showed an advantage of the word-level intervention for those with poorer phonological awareness for reading fluency; and a phoneme-level intervention advantage for those with poorer statistical learning ability. Children’s bilingual group (English plus Mandarin, English plus Malay, or English plus Tamil) also showed differential effects of the type of intervention (e.g., phoneme- or word-level) on different outcome measures. These results, along with data collected from the tablets during the intervention, suggest the need to examine the interplay between different types of technology-based interventions and individual differences in learning profiles.