Bile Acid Binding Capacity Research Articles

Fabrication of resveratrol-loaded soy peptide nanogels with transglutaminase and in vitro gastrointestinal delivery and cholesterol-lowering effect

To improve the intestinal delivery of resveratrol, soy protein peptides (SPP) and transglutaminase (TGase) were used to prepare nanogels (NGs). The results demonstrated that, compared with native soy protein isolate (SPI) NG, SPP-NG showed a lower encapsulation efficiency (EE, 70.26%), a higher release efficiency (RE, 95.83%), and a smaller particle size (194.43 nm). However, the addition of TGase increased the EE and particle size to 74.37% and 217.73 nm, respectively. The RE of SPP-TGNG was also maintained at as high as 93.28%. Interestingly, SPP-TGNG exhibited optimal bile acid–binding capacity and cholesterol-lowering digests. The differences in delivery effects and morphology were attributed to structural changes in NGs. The unfolding and exposure of hydrophobic residues and weakened hydrogen bonds by hydrolysis resulted in a disordered and loose network structure, but it was beneficial to the production of cholesterol-lowering peptides and amino acids after digestion. The presence of TGase strengthened the crosslinking network by increasing β-sheet contents, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and isopeptide bonds. The alteration in multilevel structure would further affect the digestive products. The exposure of more hydrophobic residues and isopeptide crosslinking may be the intrinsic reason for the production of more hypocholesterolemic peptides and amino acids. This study indicated that the combination of hydrolysis and TGase treatment enhanced the delivery efficiency and bioactive properties of peptide-based NGs to resveratrol and revealed the internal mechanism between the structural changes and delivery efficiency. This work offers a theoretical foundation and technical suggestions for the production of peptide-based cargo systems and hydrophobic active substances.

Polygonati rhizoma fermentation by Monascus ruber and evaluation of fermentation products in vitro

This study investigated the conditions for polygonati rhizoma (PR) fermentation by Monascus ruber and the lipid-lowering activity of the resulting product. Monascus ruber was used for the solid-state fermentation of PR, and the response surface method was used to optimize the fermentation culture medium parameters. The optimal fermentation system yielded a maximum monacolin K concentration of 21.82 ± 0.34 mg/g. The fermentation conditions were as follows: 12.5 mmol/kg of L-glutamic acid, 0.64 mmol/kg of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, 3.0 wt% of yeast extract powder, a fermentation period of 15 days, and a fermentation temperature of 30 ℃. The binding capacities of unfermented PR, “Nine-Steam-Nine-Bask” processed Polygonati rhizoma (NPR), and Monascus ruber solid-state fermented polygonati rhizoma (MPR) to sodium cholate, sodium taurocholate, and sodium glycolate were determined. MPR showed a stronger bile acid-binding capacity than unfermented PR. In addition, MPR exhibited the highest cholesterol inhibitory capacity of 51.43±1.41 %. Thus, MPR can be used as a potential antilipemic agent with potent hypolipidemic effects.

Cereal-based fermented synbiotic instant powders: a dessert practice

Objective: This study was aimed to develop synbiotic and probiotic instant powder mixtures that can be used in food products to meet the increasing interest of consumers in functional foods. Materials and Methods Cereal flours (oat, rice, wheat), sesame, cranberry, chestnut and milled germinated grains (lentil, mung bean) were blended and autoclaved then subjected to fermentation process using the Lactobacillus plantarum strain. A part of the porridge was conventionally dried (FPP) and skim milk powder+fructooligosaccharide+inulin mixture as prebiotic sources were added to the other part and subjected to freeze drying (FSP). The viability of probiotics in the gastrointestinal environment and the Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and bile-acid binding capacities of the powders after in vitro digestion were analyzed. The sensory acceptability of the desserts was evaluated. Results: FSP contained a higher number of viable cells than FPP after in vitro digestion. Relative bile-acid binding and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition capacities of samples were confirmed as their cholesterol-lowering and blood pressure-regulating potential. The panelists rated the dessert samples enriched with 5-15% FPP and FSP as 'liked'. Conclusion: The integration of these powders into a variety of food products will provide consumers with healthier dietary choices that support their overall health goals.

β-Glucan content and in vitro bile-acid binding capacity of Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus spp.

The cholesterol lowering properties of oats and barley, attributed to their high β-glucan content, are well established, but it remains unclear whether mushrooms, also rich in β-glucan, exhibit a similar functionality. We aimed to quantify the β-glucan content of commonly consumed Australian mushrooms and evaluated their bile acid binding capacity, the primary cholesterol lowering mechanism of β-glucan. Raw, boiled and fried Australian grown Agaricus bisporus (button, cup, flat and brown mushrooms) and Pleurotus spp. (shimeji and oyster) along with oats were freeze-dried and the β-glucan content was determined. The bile acid binding capacity of these samples was assessed using an in vitro digestion assay. The β-glucan content of freeze-dried raw A. bisporus mushrooms (4.5-8.1 g per 100 g) was similar to that of oats (7.6 g per 100 g, all p > 0.05), whereas Pleurotus mushrooms contained ∼5 times more β-glucan (32.5-37.4 g, p < 0.05). Boiling increased the β-glucan content of oyster, button, flat and brown mushrooms by 3-7% (p < 0.05), but did not affect the β-glucan content of shimeji or cup mushrooms. Frying had no effect on any mushroom type. The bile acid binding capacity of A. bisporus mushrooms (29-36%) was equivalent to that of raw oats (36%, p > 0.05), whereas the bile acid binding capacity of oyster mushrooms (22%) was lower than that of oats (p < 0.05). Both boiling and frying increased the bile acid binding capacity. The cholesterol lowering effects of A. bisporus mushrooms and the acceptability of consumption at the required levels need to be confirmed by clinical trials.

Coffee pulp simulated digestion enhances its in vitro ability to decrease emulsification and digestion of fats, and attenuates lipid accumulation in HepG2 cell model

The coffee industry produces a considerable quantity of coffee pulp (CP), a by-product with high levels of caffeine, phenolic compounds, and dietary fiber, which are reportedly involved in the lipid homeostasis regulation required to maintain human health. This work's objective was to evaluate the hypolipidemic activity of coffee pulp flour (CPF) and aqueous extract (CPE) after static simulated digestion by the assessment of their in vitro capacity to decrease emulsification and digestion of fats, and lipid-lowering capacity in HepG2 cells after the induction of intracellular fat accumulation. The CPF and CPE digested fractions displayed in vitro hypolipidemic properties by preserving the reduction of micellar cholesterol solubility (27–34%) and the secondary bile acid-binding capacity (22–30%), increasing their primary bile acid-binding ability (2.7-fold and 2.4-fold, respectively), and inhibiting the lipase and the HMGCR (77–79% and 36–85%, respectively) activities. Moreover, the hypolipidemic properties of non-digested fractions enhanced the CPF potential to decrease lipid absorption. Both ingredients (CPF and CPE) demonstrated lipid-lowering effects since they effectively counteract the accumulation of intracellular triglycerides and cholesterol triggered by palmitic acid in hepatic cells after the simulated digestion. This study suggests that phenolic compounds, caffeine, and dietary fiber may be responsible for the lipid-lowering properties exhibited by the CP ingredients and their composition differences affect the above-mentioned properties exhibited in the simulated digestion. These results contribute to demonstrating that the CPF and the CPE may act as modulators of pathways involved in hepatic lipid accumulation and could be a key element in its prevention.

Characterization and Bile Acid Binding Capacity of Dietary Fiber Obtained from Three Different Amaranth Products.

Amaranth is a dicotyledonous plant, now considered a health-promoting food. It has been rediscovered by the worldwide food industry, which is increasingly becoming aware of the many uses and benefits provided by amaranth in various food preparations. Amaranth dietary fibers, soluble and insoluble fractions, obtained from flour, protein isolate, and beverage were physicochemically characterized and their potential bile acid binding capacity was evaluated. Primary bile acids binding to fiber might contribute to a hypocholesterolemic effect, while the binding of secondary bile acids could minimize the cytotoxic effect that these metabolites exert on the colon. Amaranth fiber fractions were capable of sequestering cholate, taurocholate, deoxycholate, and bovine bile, with a percentage depending not only on the origin and the type of amaranth fiber evaluated but also on the bile acid studied. Flour fiber and the protein isolate insoluble fractions were the most efficient for binding bile and bile acids with uptake values between 29 and 100% relative to cholestyramine. Moreover, deoxycholate, a hydrophobic secondary bile acid, was the most captured by all the fractions, reaching 100% uptake with total and insoluble fibers of the three amaranth products. These results would suggest that the main effect through which amaranth fiber binds bile acids corresponds to an adsorptive effect mediated by hydrophobic interactions.

Modification of Ginseng Insoluble Dietary Fiber by Enzymatic Method: Structural, Rheological, Thermal and Functional Properties.

In this study, the effects of enzymatic modification using cellulase/xylanase on the composition and structural and functional properties of ginseng insoluble dietary fiber (G-IDF) were evaluated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microcopy showed that enzymatic extraction treatment caused obvious structural alterations in ginseng-modified (G-MIDF) samples, which exhibited more porous and completely wrinkled surfaces. Comparing the peak morphology of G-MIDF with untreated IDF using X-ray diffractometry, the G-MIDF sample exhibited split peaks at a 2θ angle of 23.71°, along with the emergence of sharp peaks at 28.02°, 31.78°, and 35.07°. Thermo-gravimetric analysis showed that G-MIDF exhibited a specified range of pyrolysis temperature and is suitable for food applications involving processing at temperatures below 300 °C. Overall, it was evident from rheograms that both G-IDF and G-MIDF exhibited a resemblance with respect to viscosity changes as a function of the shear rate. Enzymatic treatment led to significant (p < 0.05) improvement in water holding, oil retention, water swelling, nitrite ion binding, bile acid binding, cholesterol absorption, and glucose absorption capacities.

A comparison study on structure-function relationship of polysaccharides obtained from sea buckthorn berries using different methods: antioxidant and bile acid-binding capacity

In this study, the structural characters, antioxidant activities and bile acid-binding ability of sea buckthorn polysaccharides (HRPs) obtained by the commonly used hot water (HRP-W), pressurized hot water (HRP-H), ultrasonic (HRP-U), acid (HRP-C) and alkali (HRP-A) assisted extraction methods were investigated. The results demonstrated that extraction methods had significant effects on extraction yield, monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, particle size, triple-helical structure, and surface morphology of HRPs except for the major linkage bands. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that HRP-U with filamentous reticular microstructure exhibited better thermal stability. The HRP-A with the lowest molecular weight and highest arabinose content possessed the best antioxidant activities. Moreover, the rheological analysis indicated that HRPs with higher galacturonic acid content and molecular weight showed higher viscosity and stronger crosslinking network (HRP-C, HRP-W and HRP-U), which exhibited stronger bile acid binding capacity. The present findings provide scientific evidence in the preparation technology of sea buckthorn polysaccharides with good antioxidant and bile acid binding capacity which are related to the structure affected by the extraction methods.

Red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) instant porridge: Effect of isomaltooligosaccharides and Fibercreme as sucrose replacement on lipid profile improvement in hypercholesterol-induced rats

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of consumption pregelatinized kidney bean porridge with variation of sweetener including sucrose (BKM S), isomaltooligosaccharides (BKM IMO) and Fibercreme (BKM FC) in hypercholesterolemia rats on the lipid profile, bile acid binding capacity, digesta cholesterol excretion and digesta characters including weight, water content and pH. The diets included standard diet for Negative Control rats (NC diet) and kidney bean porridge diets with different sweeteners: sucrose (BKM S diet), IMO (BKM IMO diet) and fibercreme (BKM FC diet), respectively. Red kidney bean instant porridge substituted 30% of total calories of the diets. All of the diets were formulated based on AIN 93M standard and were fed for 28 days. The result showed that BKM IMO and BKM FC diets improve lipid profile of rats by reducing total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides and increasing HDL cholesterol. In addition, both diets increased cholesterol excretion. In vitro measurement of bile acid binding capacity showed that BKM IMO and BKM FC have a higher binding capacity than BKM S. It can be argued that increasing of cholesterol excretion and bile acids binding capacity of these diets are responsible for the improving of the lipid profile. BKM IMO and BKM FC have higher digesta weight and water content but lower pH. It is concluded that substitution of sucrose as sweetener with isomalto-oligosaccharides and Fibercreme in the formulation of pregelatinized kidney bean porridge improve the beneficial health effect of kidney bean porridge.

In vitro digestibility, glycaemic index and bile acid–binding capacity of foods containing different types of resistant starch in comparison with the commercial resistant starches

This study investigated the in vitro digestibility, glycaemic index (GI) and bile acid–binding capacity (BABC) of some potential resistant starch source food products (PRSF). Commercially available resistant starch (RS) samples, Hylon VII (RS2), Novelose 330 (RS3) and Fibersym (RS4) were also included in the study. The RS content of the PRSF used in this study was in the range of 25–77%. Standardised static in vitro digestion processes were applied, and the total digestibility, GI and BABC of the samples were determined. The digestibility of commercial RS samples was lower than the PRSF samples. No significant correlation was found between digestibility and RS or total dietary fibre (TDF) contents of the samples. A statistically significant positive correlation was obtained between GI and in vitro digestibility values. In addition, there was a statistically significant negative correlation between the GI and TDF content of the PRSF samples. In addition, it was observed that neither RS content nor RS type had a significant effect on BABC.

Extraction and Characterization of β-Glucan from Kombucha Bacterial Cellulose and Concentrated Kombucha: Evaluating their Bile Acid Binding Capacity

β-glucan is a water-soluble polysaccharide present in natural products and has many health benefi ts such as its role as a dietary fi ber. This study aimed to extract and characterize β-glucan in kombucha bacterial cellulose (KBC) powder and concentrated kombucha. The extraction method used was ultrasound sonication combined with enzymatic treatment. The results showed that the content of β-glucan was 19.70% (w/w) in KBC extract and 8.34% (w/v) in concentrated kombucha extract, determined using β-glucan assay kit (Mixed linkage). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analysis confi rmed the presence of β-glucan with β-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glucan linkages, as well as the presence of proteins, mannans, and other components in both KBC β-glucan and concentrated kombucha β-glucan extracts. Regarding bile acid binding potential, concentrated kombucha β-glucan exhibited a high bile acid binding capacity for up to 24 hours, while KBC β-glucan only retained this capacity for up to 4 hours. Altogether, these fi ndings highlight the presence and properties of β-glucan in kombucha, suggesting its potential as a functional ingredient with health benefi ts.

Effect of ultra-high pressure treatment on structural and functional properties of dietary fiber from pomelo fruitlets

The effects of ultra-high pressure treatment on structural and functional properties of dietary fiber from pomelo fruitlets were analyzed. The results showed that ultra-high treatment changed monosaccharide composition, increased total dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber from pomelo fruitlets, especially at 400 MPa where soluble dietary fiber was greatly increased from 32.49% ± 0.23% to 41.92% ± 0.32% as compared to native one (p < 0.05). Besides, ultra-high pressure treatment enhanced water- and oil-holding capacity, as well as swelling capacity of dietary fiber, which were related to its more porous structure and hydrophobic groups. Crystallinity and thermal stability of ultra-high pressure modified dietary fibers increased. Moreover, ultra-high pressure modified dietary fibers possessed stronger bile acid binding and pancreatic lipase inhibition capacities, suggesting its better potential in vitro hypolipidemic activity. Our findings suggested that ultra-high pressure treatment is a promising method to obtain dietary fiber with excellent functional properties, and can provide a basis for the high-value utilization of pomelo fruitlets as functional food with blood-lipid regulation.

Australian mushroom β-glucan content and in vitro bile-acid binding capacity compared to oats

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Bile acid-binding capacity of peptide extracts obtained from chicken blood hydrolysates using HPLC

Bile acids are involved in the modulation of various metabolic processes facilitating the biliary excretion of endogenous and exogenous cholesterol. The objective of this study was to determine the glycocholic acid binding capacity (BC) of chicken blood hydrolysates using an optimized RP-HPLC methodology. Samples were hydrolysed using a combination of five different enzymes. Alcalase and Protamex hydrolysates presented the highest BC, with mean values of 20.09% and 20.61%, respectively. Subsequently, both hydrolysates were ultrafiltered to obtain fractions >10 kDa, between 10 and 3 kDa, and <3 kDa, and the highest BC values were obtained for peptide fractions >10 kDa. Finally, the protein fragments (MW > 10 kDa) potentially responsible for BC were identified by LC-MS/MS. The results confirmed the relation of BC with the molecular weight of the peptides generated, suggesting that certain protein fragments generated from chicken blood could contribute to a positive impact on health by interfering with cholesterol metabolism.

Effect of d-galactose on physicochemical and functional properties of soy protein isolate during Maillard reaction

Maillard reaction (MR) of soy protein isolate (SPI) and d-galactose with the mass ratio (4:1, 2:1, and 1:1) was conducted. The conformation of SPI was changed from ordered to disordered and the SPI molecule was unfolded and stretched after MR. The amino acids covalently bonded to the carbonyl group of d-galactose are mainly lysine and arginine of SPI. In addition, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicated the formation of constituents with high-molecular-weight during MR. The more the d-galactose content in MR, the higher the degree of glycation and surface hydrophobicity of SPI-d-galactose conjugates. The solubility at different pH, emulsifying and foaming properties of SPI were enhanced after MR, and these properties increased with the increasing of d-galactose content in MR. d-galactose enhanced the viscosity of SPI, and changed its viscoelasticity. Meanwhile, the hydrophilic d-galactose group improved the physiological and biological properties of amphiphilic SPI, the more d-galactose content in MR, the more significant the enhancement of the properties including the fat binding capacity, bile acid binding capacity, hypoglycemic effect, antioxidant and antibacterial activity. Our work showed that d-galactose had a great influence on the structure of SPI, and further affected its functionalities.

Effect of guarana seed powder on cholesterol absorption in vitro and in Caco-2 cells

Cardiovascular disease risk is related to oxidative stress and hypercholesterolemia. Guarana seed powder contains flavanols that possess antioxidant properties and cholesterol-lowering effects. However, the molecular mechanism through which guarana seed powder may decrease cholesterol uptake from the intestinal lumen remains unclear. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of guarana powder aqueous extract on cholesterol absorption mechanisms. After simulated gastrointestinal digestion, we performed assays to determine enzymatic inhibitory capacity, bile acid binding capacity, and cholesterol micellar solubilization. Caco-2 cells were used for permeation and protein identification assays. Digested guarana powder extract inhibited pancreatic lipase in a dose-dependent manner (half-maximal inhibitory capacity: 1.033 µg/mL) and, at a concentration of 1 mg/mL, bound 45.63 % of sodium taurocholate and decreased cholesterol micellar solubilization by 10.14 %. Moreover, incubation with the extract reduced cholesterol absorption by Caco-2 cells and decreased intracellular cholesterol transporter levels. These results indicate that guarana seed powder have potential applications for blood cholesterol management, presenting hypocholesterolemic effects owing to the presence of bioacessible polyphenols.

Colesevelam – a bile acid sequestrant for treating hypercholesterolemia and improving hyperglycemia

ABSTRACT Introduction Low density Lipoprotein cholesterol)LDL-C) levels show a clear relationship with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Statins are first line agents to reduce LDL-C and CVD risk. However, combination lipid-lowering therapy is often required to achieve large reductions in LDL-C. Area covered Colesevelam HCl is a bile acid sequestrant (BAS), which reduces LDL-C by 16–22% in monotherapy and adds a further 12–14% reduction in LDL-C when combined with other lipid-lowering drugs. Like statins, colesevelam reduces C-reactive protein levels by 16% in monotherapy and additional 6% when added to statins. Colesevelam also reduced HbA1c by 4 mmol/mol (0.5%) when used alone and added to other hypoglycemic drugs in studies of patients with diabetes . Expert Opinion Bile acid sequestrants reduce LDL-C and HbA1c and have some CVD outcome evidence. The uses of these agents are limited in patients with gastrointestinal disease or high triglycerides due to adverse effects on gut function and raising triglycerides and they interfere with the absorption of lipid-soluble drugs. Colesevelam has a higher bile acid binding capacity, and fewer adverse effects than other BAS. Colesevelam may be useful as a third line agent for treatment of hypercholesterolemia with some additional specific benefits on glycemic control.

In vitro simulated digestion affecting physicochemical characteristics and bioactivities of polysaccharides from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grasses at different growth stages

In this study, three polysaccharides (BGPs: BGPs-Z21, BGPs-Z23, and BGPs-Z31) were successively extracted from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grasses (BG) at different growth stages, including seedling (Z21), tillering (Z23), and stem elongation (Z31). The effects of in vitro simulated saliva–gastrointestinal digestion on the physicochemical characteristics and biological activities of BGPs were investigated and compared. Results showed that the simulated saliva–gastrointestinal digestion had considerable influences on reducing sugar content, chemical components, monosaccharide constituents, and molecular weights of BGPs but hardly affected their preliminarily structural characteristics. Moreover, the antioxidant activities of BGPs were weakened after the simulated saliva–gastrointestinal digestion, but their bile acid-binding capacities were remarkably enhanced. The digested BGPs-Z31 by gastric juice possessed better antioxidant benefit, and bile acid-binding capacity (80.33 %) than other digested products. Overall, these results indicated that BGPs obtained from BG are valuable for functional foods as promising bioactive ingredients.

Cholesterol-Lowering Effects of Asperidine B, a Pyrrolidine Derivative from the Soil-Derived Fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum PSU-RSPG178: A Potential Cholesterol Absorption Inhibitor.

Isolated secondary metabolites asperidine B (preussin) and asperidine C, produced by the soil-derived fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum PSU-RSPG178, were found to exhibit inhibitory effects against 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase and oxidative stress in an in vitro assay. Whether or not the known pyrrolidine asperidine B and the recently isolated piperidine asperidine C have lipid-lowering effects remains unknown. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the hypocholesterolemic effects of asperidines B and C and identify the mechanisms involved in using in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models. The results show that both compounds interfered with cholesterol micelle formation by increasing bile acid binding capacity, similar to the action of the bile acid sequestrant drug cholestyramine. However, only asperidine B, but not asperidine C, was found to inhibit cholesterol uptake in Caco-2 cells by up-regulating LXRα without changing cholesterol transporter NPC1L1 protein expression. Likewise, reduced cholesterol absorption via asperidine-B-mediated activation of LXRα was also observed in isolated rat jejunal loops. Asperidine B consistently decreases plasma cholesterol absorption, similar to the effect of ezetimibe in rats. Therefore, asperidine B, the pyrrolidine derivative, has therapeutic potential to be developed into a type of cholesterol absorption inhibitor for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia.

Effect of oxidative modification on physicochemical and functional properties of soybean polysaccharides

Oxidized soybean polysaccharides (OSSPS-1 and OSSPS-2) were prepared. Their structure was characterized, and their physicochemical and functional properties were evaluated. Structural analysis showed that the hydroxyl groups of soybean polysaccharides (SSPS) were oxidized to carboxyl groups. The molecular weight decreased from 1.5 × 105 Da (SSPS) to 7.2 × 104 Da (OSSPS-1) and 7.0 × 104 Da (OSSPS-2), respectively. The carboxyl content of SSPS, OSSPS-1 and OSSPS-2 was 1.79%, 6.08% and 9.45%, respectively. Uronic acid content of SSPS, OSSPS-1 and OSSPS-2 was 4.15%, 7.39% and 10.29%, respectively. Compared with SSPS, OSSPS-1 and OSSPS-2 showed decreased emulsifying property. Oxidative modification greatly reduced the viscosity of SSPS and changed their viscoelasticity. Whereas, oxidative modification improved a series of viscosity-related functional properties of SSPS, such as fat binding capacity, bile acid binding capacity, hypoglycemic effect. The antioxidant and antibacterial activities of SSPS were enhanced after oxidative modification. OSSPS-1 possessed higher DPPH scavenging ability, ferrous iron chelating ability and reducing power than OSSPS-2, but OSSPS-2 showed better antibacterial activities than OSSPS-1. The result revealed that oxidative modification had a significant effect on the structure of SSPS, which further affected the functional properties and biological activities of SSPS.