Bilateral Relations Research Articles

Through the Lens of Neoclassical Realism: Understanding the Decline in Malaysia– India Relations Under Mahathir 2.0

This article suggests that since the end of the Cold War, Malaysia’s foreign policy towards a rising India has significantly intertwined with its overarching hedging calculations vis-à-vis the burgeoning power competition between the United States and China. Hedging, based on the conceptualization of Dr Cheng-Chwee Kuik, incorporates a largely structure-induced logic that encompasses a survival-driven, risk-averse and insurance-seeking behaviour to ensure the survival of less powerful states without putting all eggs in one great power’s basket due to concerns over future uncertainty. While the US and China are the most immediate and consequential structural factors impacting Malaysian foreign policy, Kuik presents the concept of dominance-denial as a sub-element of hedging, where a less powerful state aims to forge positive and functional ties with all major powers in the system based on its economic and security interests. Strengthening ties with India has been crucial in Putrajaya’s dominance-denial strategy. However, while Malaysia–India economic and defence ties continued to grow since the 1990s, bilateral relations backslid in 2019 due to former Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamed’s provocative stance towards New Delhi, leading to a considerable decline in economic relations. Therefore, this article seeks to theoretically explain these constraints in the relations between Putrajaya and New Delhi through a neoclassical realist lens in order to supplement Kuik’s hedging framework.

An Analysis of US-Israel Relations: Impact on Palestine

This research paper focused on the relationship between Israel and the United States of America. The United States and Israel have a unique relationship, something that might not be found within any bilateral relations. The Israelis and Americans have always supported each other in every field and avenue, from foreign policy to economic policy, etc. How this relation affects the Palestinian people and their cause to achieve a separate homeland needs to be discussed. The economic repercussions that the Palestinians face from the US-Israel relations shall also be discussed. Israel does not wish to see Palestine become an independent state, while on the other hand, the Americans have expressed their desire for a two-state solution, which would ensure stability in the region and less hostility towards Israel. The researchers have also employed different theoretical frameworks to better get an understanding of the conflict.

Unlocking Kenya's Export Potential: Opportunities in the African Continental Free Trade Area

Regional trade agreements enhance export market prospects by providing preferential access. Since 1986, Kenya has embraced an export-led growth strategy, unswervingly executing trade liberalization through bilateral, regional, and multilateral trade agreements. This study assesses Kenya's export potential within the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) framework, intent on its bilateral trade prospects with six AfCFTA member states namely Cameroon, Egypt, Ghana, Mauritius, Tanzania and Tunisia. Utilizing the stochastic frontier gravity model, the analysis discloses that Kenya’s average export potential is strong, with potential rates of 94% for Cameroon and Tunisia, 66% for Mauritius, 93% for Egypt, 66% for Ghana, and 56% for Tanzania. The findings show that African states possess considerable export potential in agricultural and value-added products. To capitalize on this potential, it is critical to identify specific commodities that align with markets where Kenya's strengths are positioned. The study concludes that a targeted strategy focusing on specific goods for specific markets, along with increased export of agro-processed products through value addition and diversification, can effectively harness this potential.

Pakistan-US relations: examining sustainable bilateral cooperation via civil society collaboration

Pakistan and the United States (US) have struggled to form mutually beneficial foreign policies that withstand volatile political phases. In the current global context, there is an urgent need for innovative and practical approaches to enrich the field of international relations, allowing policymakers to overcome diplomatic deadlocks. This research examines the potential role of a sustainable development approach with civil society organisations (CSOs) as the implementing instrument of foreign policies. Through case studies of successful CSO initiatives across economic, social, and environmental pillars, specifically covering SDGs 3, 8, 13 and 17, the study observes and empirically examines the multisectoral operations of US-based civil society in Pakistan, highlighting its comprehensive impact on the people as well as uncovering the resilient nature of civil society-led cooperation between states. The research finds that integrating civil society into foreign policy can create resilient and sustainable development-oriented bilateral relations, offering a practical strategy for enhancing collaboration and achieving sustainability. This model presents a pathway for countries to transcend transactional ties and establish lasting, mutually beneficial partnerships. The study also opens doors for further research in IR to welcome the sustainable development paradigm in bilateral studies.

ОБРАЗ РОССИЙСКОГО ПАНСЛАВИЗМА В ГЕРМАНСКИХ ПАРЛАМЕНТСКИХ ДЕБАТАХ ПОСЛЕДНЕЙ ТРЕТИ XIX ВЕКА

The main topic of this research is the image of Russian pan-Slavism in German parliamentary discourse. The last third of the 19th century was the time of dramatic change in Russian-German relations – from an alliance to the membership in opposing military blocs. The driving forces of this deterioration were not only international politics and economy. Public opinion, especially in Germany, also played an important part in this process. Not entitled to take part in foreign policy decision making immediately, German political parties were able to influence public opinion on international issues. Therefore, the study of parliamentary debates makes it possible to understand the cooling of Russian-German relations. The sources of this research are minutes of parliament meetings from 1871 to 1895. Qualitative content analysis was chosen as the most appropriate method for this research. Main finding of this research id the existence of a single image of Russian pan-Slavism in German political parties from Conservatives to Left Liberals and Social Democrats. The use of this image was determined by the particular topic and corresponding interests of the party, but its key features remained the same. Pan-Slavism was perceived and presented as a powerful force in Russian society that was able even to overrule the emperor and to dictate political decision. This force was invariably hostile to Germany and constantly warmongering. Within the framework of this interpretation, the deterioration of bilateral relations was perceived by German society as a natural consequence of the activities of Russian pan-Slavists.

Аспекты торгово-экономического сотрудничества России и Таиланда в конце XX – начале XXI вв.

The work examines the modern trade-economic relations between Russia and Thailand in the context of the history of bilateral relations. The period of the 1990–2010s is shown as the next stage of Russian-Thai trade and economic cooperation, which largely maintain continuity, but in the new historical conditions have complete by newfeatures. The author reviews commodity nomenclature and the dynamics of trade turnover over the past 30 years,investigates the factors influencing the volume of Russian-Thai trade, analyzes the level of investment ties and theprofile of Russian and Thai investors.

Современные российско-филиппинские отношения: вызовы и возможности

This article is devoted to the main areas of cooperation between Russia and the Philippines in the present.It discusses the prerequisites for the development of bilateral relations along with the results of interaction in the spheres of interstate relations, economy, security, culture over the past decade and a half. The article also examines the problematic aspects of bilateral relations, reflects the impact of the American factor on the nature of Russian Philippine interaction, primarily in the context of strengthening of the US military and political presence in the Western Pacific and the involvement of the Philippines in the policy of containing China. The paper presents proposals and arguments regarding the rapprochement between Russia and the Philippines, indicating the reasons that may affect the establishment of stable relations between the two countries. The methodological basis of the work is the analysis ofthe research findings of both Russian and international scholars, as well as materials and documents that are available on the topic of research.

Pre-post examination of residents’ destination image toward mega event hosting country with strained bilateral relations

Pre-post examination of residents’ destination image toward mega event hosting country with strained bilateral relations

"Data Free Flow with Trust": Japan's struggle to integrate democracy and human rights into digital trade policy.

A powerful regime for regulating trade, the Group of Seven (G-7) has increasingly negotiated its digital trade through bilateral and preferential trade agreements, including with non-member states in the Global South. Focusing on the dominant concept shaping these agreements, Japan's "Data Free Flow with Trust" (D.F.F.T.), we trace its discursively contested emergence and meaning within a national ("Society 5.0") vision for Japan's digital transformation, and its subsequent transnationalization in international fora and institutionalization in global digital trade policy. Drawing on our interviews with Japanese government ministers, business elites, and legal experts who contributed to the processual development of D.F.F.T., as well as diverse additional primary sources, we find that the D.F.F.T. has become more than a trade policy, covering a wider range of social and geopolitical issues. In particular, we show that contention over "data localization measures" has restructured international relations of trust, especially across the Global North/South divide. Ultimately, this research report contributes to our understanding of how D.F.F.T. poses threats to human rights, democracy, and the global knowledge economy that may undermine its goals of enhancing innovation capacity and economic growth.

Pak-France Relations During 21st Century: Strategic Alliances and Bilateral Cooperation

This research aims to critically analyse the bilateral relations between France and Pakistan during the 21st century. It emphasizes political, economic, social, cultural and military relationships between the two countries. Its purposes are to demonstrate the political ideologies and foreign policy objectives that influence Pakistan-France relations, to examine the nature of economic ties between Pakistan and France, to analyse the patterns of trade and investment that changed over time, to evaluate the Pakistan-France collaboration on military and security matters, and other key areas of cooperation, and to elucidate Pakistan-France political relations, the influence of pressure groups(political and religious) on their relationship, and to imposing allegations on France as a result of religious disparity in Pakistan. This study concludes that Pakistan and France are having high time collaborations in various sectors with a particular focus on working together in the fields of nuclear technology, defence cooperation, and resolving global security issues.

Развитие системы педагогического образования в Республике Гана

Relevance. Integration of African students into the Russian cultural and educational space is one of the most effective means of fostering friendly bilateral relations in order to implement Russia’s humanitarian policy on the African continent. Pedagogical education can become an important form of cooperation; it may include enrolling foreign students in higher education programs and expanding our work in educational centers abroad. Such a center promoting Russian culture among students was opened in the Republic of Ghana in 2003. However, our understanding of the organization of pedagogical education – primarily the system of teacher training – will contribute to deeper integration into the Ghanaian educational system in order to achieve the above-mentioned objective. We should aim to comprehend the internal structure, objectives, content, management, and evolving directions of the Ghanaian educational system, grounded in its history. The aim of the research is to analyze the contemporary system of teacher training education in the Republic of Ghana. The methodology uses a cultural approach, blending comparative and historical pedagogical methods with analysis of scientific literature, state educational documents, reports of the Ministry of Education and international organizations, enhanced by field observations and interviews with representatives of Ghana’s higher education. The findings reveal a dynamic evolution in Ghana’s higher education system, highlighting its contemporary structure, governance, and educational policies concerning teacher training. Conclusion: the study identifies the principles underpinning the organization of Ghana’s national pedagogical education and notes the active renewal phase of the teacher training system, which aligns with national interests yet relies on international support (methodological and financial). Therefore, at the moment, Ghana is as open as possible for cooperation in teacher training education. Practical application: the research results are valuable for the development of the Center for Open Education in Ghana and for creating joint training programs under the Russian Federation’s Humanitarian Policy abroad. Additionally, the results can contribute to comparative pedagogy courses at university level.

Determinants of Bilateral Cooperation of Small States in Contemporary International Relations: From the Neorealist Perspective of Politics and Security – A Case Study: Serbia and North Macedonia

Bilateral relations of small states represent a very limited field in academic debates and research within the science of international relations. In fact, there is a lack of research and relevant debates on what the determinants and factors of bilateral relations are between small states and how much those factors contribute to promoting it on one hand, while, on the other, how much same factors condition that cooperation, and, finally, how much small states independently determine and define their bilateral relations in their foreign policy activities. In this paper, using the example of bilateral relations between Serbia and North Macedonia in the period of the last ten years, the authors will try to answer the following main research question: What is the basis of the bilateral cooperation between Serbia and North Macedonia and what is its perspective? On those grounds, they will also answer the following questions: To what extent is this cooperation conditioned by internal political circumstances in either country; to what extent is this cooperation determined by regional circumstances; how much is it influenced by the so-called “major actors” in international relations; and, finally, to what extent is it actually a consequence of the sovereign decisions of the authorities in Belgrade and Skopje? With this methodological order of research questions, from the general to the individual in the theoretical sense through the prism of realists and structural realists, the authors will establish the perspective of bilateral relations between small states within the framework of the actual circumstances of international relations.

Nostalgia, Scapegoating, and Alterity Politics. An analysis of the Albatross Undercutting Zimbabwe’s Leverage of Bilateral Relations with China

The article explores the interplay of nostalgia, scapegoating, and alterity politics within the context of China–Zimbabwe relations. Grounded in postcolonial critique, constructivism, and psychology, the paper grapples with how identities, historical narratives, memory, and the legacy of colonialism shape state behavior and policymaking. Therefore, this study interrogates the contradictions, continuities, and discontinuities surrounding the ideological frameworks, histories, and power structures as they impact Zimbabwe’s postcolonial policy praxis and maneuvers with China. Pursuant, I foreground the agency of domestic political dynamics in shaping the nature, impact, success, or failure thereof, of China–Zimbabwe relations. Overarchingly, the study brings nuance to the broader salience of identity politics in shaping the Global South relations with emerging powers either as a source of leverage or hindrance.

A new chapter in EU–UK relations

With new administrations taking office in both Brussels and London, a reset in relations between the European Union and the United Kingdom is likely, with incremental improvements to follow. During the 2024 UK general election, Labour campaigned for an ‘improved and ambitious relationship’ with Europe, pledging to enhance the Trade and Cooperation Agreement, negotiate a new security pact with the EU and build stronger bilateral relations with key EU nations.

Heritage conservation and civilisational competition in the South Caucasus: the Blue Mosque of Yerevan and the Govhar Agha Mosque in Shusha

ABSTRACT This paper explores the role of cultural heritage in shaping competing civilisational identities amid the Armenia-Azerbaijan conflict. As its case studies, it focuses on the relatively recent restorations of two significant mosques, the Blue Mosque in Yerevan (capital of Armenia) and the Govhar Agha Mosque in Shusha (capital of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan), respectively. Referring to primary references in Persian, Azerbaijani, Turkish, Armenian, and Russian, the paper elaborates historical, cultural, and political narratives surrounding these edifices and their restorations. This situates heritage conservation within the South Caucasus’s intricate historical and geopolitical landscape. Within this context, the function of heritage extends beyond national cultural symbolism. Responding to a transnational dimension, heritage functions as an instrument in geopolitical manoeuvring by both Armenia and Azerbaijan and in relation to rising and influential regional powers, Iran, and Turkey. Here the distinct function of heritage is shaping civilisational identities: it projects scales beyond the nation-state and is integral to various other forms of bilateral and multilateral agreements, including military and economic. As such, disputes over these two heritage sites and others like them, echo broader geopolitical and civilisational tensions at regional scales. Thus, heritage is at once the battleground for national-territorial and civilisational claims.

The Impact of Foreign & Domestic Investment on Export Processing Zones in Bangladesh: An Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Approach

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a major force behind the integration of the global economy and has the potential to boost economic development in both investing and those receiving the investment. The majority of the study focuses on the influence of FDI on Bangladesh’s economic growth. A number of scholars have also looked at how FDI affects trade, domestic investment and other economic sectors. But surprisingly less research has been done on the effects of FDI on Bangladesh's export processing zones (EPZs). This study tries to investigate the impact of foreign and domestic investment on exports of EPZs between 2011-2022. To investigate EPZs export, this study used the Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach. The Wald test was used to determine the direction of causation. The ARDL estimate shows that investment, GDP and FDI all have a positive correlation with rising EPZ export. The coefficient for FDI inflows is 0.15% which suggests that if FDI inflows raise by 1%, EPZ export will grow by 0.15% while all other factors stay constant. It also shows that a 1% increase in investment leads to 1.32% quicker growth in EPZ exports, assuming all other factors remain constant. The Wald test demonstrates the bilateral causal relationship between EPZ export & FDI and the unidirectional relationship between EPZ export & GDP. Therefore, Bangladesh must take immediate measures to protect potential foreign investors in order to provide a welcoming environment so that they can feel their contribution in the Bangladeshi business industry is respected.

Examining the Alignment of Ideological Expression with Behavior or Deception: An Experimental Investigation of Chinese Youth's Political Attitudes Towards America

<i>Background</i> In the context of globalization, as one of the most significant bilateral relations in the world, the dynamics of China-US relations exert a considerable influence on the world. Simultaneously, the accelerated advancement of Internet technology has provided a more expansive array of avenues for acquiring information. Through Social media, news websites, and international forums, Chinese youth groups demonstrate a heightened interest in global affairs. However, the divergence between disparate cultural and political systems has resulted in Chinese youth developing nuanced and multifaceted political dispositions when engaging with the United States and other Western nations. It is therefore imperative to study the political attitudes of Chinese youth, particularly to the United States. <i>Objectives</i> The concept of political attitude expression refers to the external manifestation of an individual's ideological position's usefulness. However, there is a lack of empirical research examining the alignment between an individual's inner motivation and their expression of political attitudes. Based on the aforementioned information, an experimental study was devised and executed with the aim of discerning political attitudes. The study focused on individuals' external expressions of political attitudes and their intrinsic motivations, specifically in relation to the United States. The objective was to examine whether specific factors could potentially influence the external manifestation of individuals' internal ideologies.<i> Main ideas</i> Various factors contribute to the expression of individual ideologies. The ideologies expressed by individuals do not solely reflect their ideological beliefs, but rather arise from a complex interplay of moderating factors influenced by individual rationality regarding economic costs and social circumstances. <i>Conclusions</i> (1) The political attitudes of Chinese youth toward the United States in general demonstrate a left-leaning trend, with low favorability toward the U.S. (2) Economic interests exert an influence on ideological expression, and individuals holding a left-leaning ideological position may elect to accept financial incentives and formally demonstrate high favorability toward the U.S., driven by economic interests. (3) Transformations in the social milieu may precipitate a phenomenon whereby individuals are inclined to "follow the crowd," concealing their authentic political dispositions and eschewing genuine political expression.

Preventing Tax Base Erosion from Tax Treaty Abuse For SDGS in Vietnam

Objective: Tax treaties represent an important aspect of the international tax rules of many countries, especially in globalizing era. The taxing rights of the states is one of the biggest issues in cross border transactions because it decides the budget revenue deriving from tax. Tax base, tax base erosion and tax base erosion prevention are topics that have received a lot of attention recently in Vietnam in order to protect government’s revenue for sustainable development goals (SDGs). Method: By analyzing the current status of Vietnam's double taxation agreements (DTAs), the authors assessed the current situation and identifying risks of tax base erosion from abusing Vietnam's DTAs. The study focuses on analyzing the indicators to assess the content of DTAs such as the Source Index (SI), Permanent Establishment Index (PEI) and Withholding Tax Index (WHT) of Vietnam’s DTAs with the ones of groups of countries. Results: The authors found that there are loopholes in DTAs creating conditions for abuses of the terms of the agreements and causing tax base erosion in Vietnam. Comparing to the average level of developing countries, the DTA system of Vietnam is higher, however, the biggest limitation and the biggest risk from the system of DTAs are these agreements are agreements signed by Vietnam with the countries/territories that have the lowest scores and are in the group of countries/territories with the largest amount of investment capital in Vietnam. Contribution: The study makes some recommendations for Vietnam to prevent tax base erosion from tax treaty abuse by reviewing and considering negotiating to update the content of the bilateral tax agreements, promoting participation in multilateral tax agreement and improving efficiency of tax audit.

Analysis of the Existing Forms and Practices of Interaction between Russian and Chinese Educational Organizations at Different Levels in the Framework of Promoting Education in Russian (the Example of the Siberian Federal District)

Introduction. The research problem is caused by the need to study the features of Russian-Chinese educational cooperation in order to more effectively scale the best practices for the promotion of the Russian language and Russian education in China. The purpose of the article is to analyze the established forms and practices of interaction between Russian and Chinese educational organizations at different levels in the field of teaching Russian as a foreign language and promoting Russian education on the example of the Siberian Federal District. Methodology. A summary review of research on forms of international cooperation in the field of education on the example of certain regions of the Russian Federation and the Peopleʼs Republic of China, an analysis of the official websites of educational organizations in Russia in terms of their participation in the processes of internationalization of education. Results. The authors have compiled a database of Siberian and Chinese partner universities, which has enabled a clear demonstration of the degree of presence of Siberian Federal District universities in the educational space of the Peopleʼs Republic of China. Additionally, the article analyses the formats of cooperation between the two countries: educational network programs, academic mobility, preparation of students for admission to Russian universities, summer and winter schools, centers for open education in Russian and Russian language teaching, scientific and technical relations and joint research projects. Conclusions. The analysis has revealed that, despite the existence of a large number of bilateral agreements between educational organizations, interaction is uneven (both in terms of territorial distribution and from a substantive point of view). Furthermore, it would appear that not all Russian universities in the Siberian Federal District are as active as they could be in carrying out international cooperation with Chinese educational organizations.

Onwards and ...eastwards? EU-Azerbaijan relations as an example of crisis-driven agenda-setting within the framework of the European neighbourhood policy

This paper uses qualitative discourse analysis to investigate how the Second Nagorno-Karabakh war in 2020 and Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 have impacted bilateral relations between the European Union and Azerbaijan in the realm of security and energy policy? The study takes into account geo-political developments in the aftermath of the 2018 Agreement on New Partnership Priorities, as well as contemplates the future of the European Neighbourhood Policy. In this context, the paper illuminates the interplay of EU external governance, agenda-setting, and crisis concepts. In essence, the paper asserts that the EU responds swiftly to crises, such as the Ukraine and Karabakh conflicts, through actions like mediation, investments, and deepening bilateral relations, while often overlooking the root causes. Additionally, the EU consistently emphasizes long-term strategies and energy policies, with security concerns becoming more prominent during crisis periods.